Bp138
There's a people that are a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God, that they may declare the praises of him who called them out of darkness into his wonderful light. Read ahead to see who that is!!! The answer may surprise you!!!
Nugget: What percentage of kids choose the cereal for the prize inside? That’s on the surface. How many marriages started because somebody was everything the beautiful one ever wanted because they were beautiful? Seek first the Kingdom of God. Matthew 6:33 (The Message)
The Message (MSG)
30-33"If God gives such attention to the appearance of wildflowers—most of which are never even seen—don't you think he'll attend to you, take pride in you, do his best for you? What I'm trying to do here is to get you to relax, to not be so preoccupied with getting, so you can respond to God's giving. People who don't know God and the way he works fuss over these things, but you know both God and how he works. Steep your life in God-reality, God-initiative, God-provisions. Don't worry about missing out. You'll find all your everyday human concerns will be met.
But the end of all things is near: so be serious in your behaviour and keep on the watch with prayer.
Wilderness is generally defined as a natural environment on Earth that has not been modified by human activity. Wilderness areas are considered important for ecological study, conservation, solitude, and recreation. Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral and aesthetic reasons as well, some nature writers believe wilderness is vital for the human spirit and creativity. [1]
1 Peter 4:7
The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme.
Woe to them that {a} go down to Egypt for help; and rely on horses, and trust in chariots, because they are many; and in horsemen, because they are very strong; but they look not to the Holy One of Israel, neither {b} seek the LORD!
I called my ride Hattie to go to Ernestine’s and learned thy have a picnic for their son, Ronnie, to attend. I learned not to trust others’ chariot. I saw a good Bible Paper topic. There were two special reasons why the Israelites should not join with the Egyptians: first, because the Lord had commanded them never to return there, Deuteronomy 17:sixteen
The king, moreover, must not acquire great numbers of horses for himself or make the people return to Egypt to get more of them, for the LORD has told you, "You are not to go back that way again."
“He who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all—how will he not also, along with him, graciously give us all things?”- Romans 8:thirty-two
People have technology take the place of the Lord so much that He has been pushed away. Jesus likes to go the long way around the barn. That’s the way the flesh looks at Jesus Christ. The flesh thinks Jesus is all wrong. That’s all wrong. I need a ride to Ernestine’s smallgroup, so my need makes it hard to see what is most important. I mustn’t put my wishes above my needs. When I had somebody work on my 505 pg book, disk error, he erased it. I was putting my trust in him before the Lord. I was DEVASTATED WITH ANGUISH, OVERWHELMED WITH GRIEF, OVERCOME WITH SORROW, and CONFOUNDED WITH HEARTACHE.
I get my joy from Jesus. He is the hope for all I do. The Spirit needs to be continually fed.
68 The LORD will send you back in ships to Egypt on a journey I said you should never make again. There you will offer yourselves for sale to your enemies as male and female slaves, but no one will buy you.
Faith is great to have. There was a retarded man that had a fake gun. The preacher had a splitting headache. The man said, shooting him, “In Jesus’ name, be healed!” That very second the preacher was healed! People are blessed lest they should forget the benefit of their redemption: and secondly, lest they should be corrupted with the superstition and idolatry of the Egyptians, and so forsake God, Jer 2:18. Jeremiah 2:18 (New International Version) Check this out. after I asked you to pray for my brother’s baby mama and son, I saw you did. I learned his son moved back in with the mama. I didn’t know he was with his granny. Please pray for his focus. Justin, my brother, was spontaneous, impulsive, unprompted, spur-of-the-moment. He also moved around all the time. Georgia Florida Georgia Florida Tennessee…. He was so unstable suicide became his only sensible way out. Now that I see what the continual shifting did, I know to pray for the baby mama and son. Please join me in prayer for them. That’s so neat how your earlier prayer did. God bless you! Justin also seemed to be looking for a fight. I thought of that when he and I were playing pool with his friends. He made me mad and when I looked at him, his friends very scared backed away from him and fearfully looked at him.
18 Now why go to Egypt
to drink water from the Shihor [a] ?
And why go to Assyria
to drink water from the River [b] ?
The New John Gill Exposition
of the Entire Bible
And now what hast thou to do in the way of Egypt…
By worshipping of idols, in imitation of them; or by sending ambassadors thither for help, when they had their Lord, their God, so nigh, had they not forsaken him; nor had Josiah any business to go out against Pharaohnecho, (2 Chronicles 35:21) and, contrary to the express word of God by the Prophet Jeremy, did the Jews which remained in Judea go into Egypt, (Jeremiah 42:19) (43:1-7) . To drink the waters of Sihor?
which is the river Nile, as Jarchi interprets it. The Septuagint and Arabic versions render it "the waters of Geon", or "Gihon": and this also is the same with the Nile, as Josephus F11 affirms, who says,
``Geon, which runs through Egypt, is the same which the Greeks call Nile.''
So Jerom F12 from Eusebius,
``Geon is a river, which with the Egyptians is called Nile.''
The Vulgate Latin version renders it, "troubled water"; and such were the waters of the Nile, which had its name of Sihor from the blackness of it; and hence, by the Greeks F13, was called Melas; and by the Latines F14, Melo. Hence, as Braunius F15 observes, it was represented by a black stone, as other rivers by a white one; for which reason the black colour was very grateful to the Egyptians; and for the same reason Osiris, which is the very Nile itself, was reckoned black; and the ox Apis they worshipped was a black one, at least part of it, and was covered with black linen cloth; and its priests were also clothed in black, hence called Chemarim, (Hosea 10:5) (Zephaniah 1:4) . Or what hast thou to do in the way of Assyria;
I called Pat and Les and was very relieved to learn they will pick me up. What a relief! Ernestine also told me to tell them Maryland needs a ride too. Pat sweetly obliged and said that’s fine! I’m so thankful!
to go after their idolatrous practices, or to send to them for help; for this was the usual method of the Jews; when the Assyrians oppressed them, then they sent to Egypt for help; and when the Egyptians were upon them, then they applied to the Assyrians; and in both cases acted wrong, for they ought to have sought the Lord their God only: to drink the waters of the river?
of the river Euphrates. The sense is, that they preferred the waters of the Nile and of Euphrates, or the gods of the Egyptians and Assyrians, or the help of these people, before the Lord, the fountain of living waters, and his worship and powerful help. The Targum paraphrases this last clause thus,
``why do ye make covenant with the Assyrian, to carry you captive beyond the river Euphrates?''
the Spirit in you is unfathomably powerful! It makes you supernatural! People forsake the Lord if they put their trust in worldly things: for they cannot trust in both. With it so near the end, be careful what you trust in. Signs of the End of the Age Jesus left the temple and was walking away when his disciples came up to him to call his attention to its buildings. "Do you see all these things?" he asked. "I tell you the truth, not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down." As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to him privately. "Tell us," they said, "when will this happen, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the end of the age?" Jesus answered: "Watch out that no one deceives you. For many will come in my name, claiming, 'I am the Christ,[a]' and will deceive many. You will hear of wars and rumors of wars, but see to it that you are not alarmed. Such things must happen, but the end is still to come. Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places. All these are the beginning of birth pains. "Then you will be handed over to be persecuted and put to death, and you will be hated by all nations because of me. At that time many will turn away from the faith and will betray and hate each other, and many false prophets will appear and deceive many people. Because of the increase of wickedness, the love of most will grow cold, but he who stands firm to the end will be saved. And this gospel of the kingdom will be preached in the whole world as a testimony to all nations, and then the end will come. "So when you see standing in the holy place 'the abomination that causes desolation,'[b] spoken of through the prophet Daniel—let the reader understand— then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. Let no one on the roof of his house go down to take anything out of the house. Let no one in the field go back to get his cloak. How dreadful it will be in those days for pregnant women and nursing mothers! Pray that your flight will not take place in winter or on the Sabbath. For then there will be great distress, unequaled from the beginning of the world until now—and never to be equaled again. If those days had not been cut short, no one would survive, but for the sake of the elect those days will be shortened. At that time if anyone says to you, 'Look, here is the Christ!' or, 'There he is!' do not believe it. For false Christs and false prophets will appear and perform great signs and miracles to deceive even the elect—if that were possible. See, I have told you ahead of time. "So if anyone tells you, 'There he is, out in the desert,' do not go out; or, 'Here he is, in the inner rooms,' do not believe it. For as lightning that comes from the east is visible even in the west, so will be the coming of the Son of Man. Wherever there is a carcass, there the vultures will gather. "Immediately after the distress of those days " 'the sun will be darkened,
and the moon will not give its light;
the stars will fall from the sky,
and the heavenly bodies will be shaken.'[c]
Jeremiah 2:2 Go and cry in the ears of Jerusalem, saying, Thus saith the LORD; I remember thee, the a kindness of thy youth, the love of thy espousals, when thou wentest after me in the wilderness, b in a land [that was] not sown.
Hattie called and said because of ugly weather her son’s, Ronny’s, picnic was called off. I called Pat and apologetically told her Hattie said she’d be able to come pick me up after all. The weather influences your ride in that manner. It was the living God showing us angles adjustments can take. (a) According to that grace and favour which I showed you from the beginning, when I first chose you to be my people, and married you to myself,
I wake and my back doesn't hurt! That stands out! Then when I got to church, I see we have cards for prayers and I put that down. I pray for my nephew’s stability. He is switching homes. Please pray with me. I told Trudy how I bedside pray every night. My brother picked that up from our youth after he started dating a girl in church. I picked it up from him. We pray over requests. I’m inspired to read a book on prayer, after I find it. Please pray for Trudy, who has a rash that keeps coming back. Ernestine tells her to do the lotion everyday. Praise the Lord! after prayer, I got the rep I was doing before Ecuador! It’s taken me that long! On the prayer cards, Ernestine wrote NOTHING about her. That’s Ernestine for you. we have prayer. Jesus just needs a few good men. Praise the Lord my desired teams won yesterday. Completely, totally, wholly, entirely, fully trust in Jesus. We trust Lord Almighty to shed His grace and favor upon the church. I praise the Lord for showing me the world isn’t like it makes out. now I know. Papa called Mom and told her he saw a documentary on Ecuador and said it looks very, very, very beautiful. He’d “love to” visit. Mom said I said they're poor. She said but the kids, in the pictures, sure do look dressed up. Praise the Lord He didn't get me married when I wanted to. A decade ago. Now I appreciate being single. Jesus the Savior has pointed out the sides and what they say and who is saying it. after prayer, I learn Mom is at the Toyota place. Four hundred dollar inspection, AC checked, oil change, rotated tires, inspected brakes, cleaned them, replaced air filter, adjusted brakes, inspected battery, cleaned fuel injection. Trudy passes out a confession of Jesus' promises. We aren't going to outreach. I am walking home, I think. But Cindy sweetly offers a ride because it keeps raining. Florida aug weather. I accept the lovable offer and lavish the generosity in her cute car with its charming manner. That is church family and increases appreciation for the church. Appreciation is a term used in accounting relating to the increase in value of an asset. In this sense it is the reverse of depreciation, which measures the fall in value of assets over their normal life-time.
In simple words we can say that depreciation is the reduction in the value of an asset due to usage, passage of time, wear and tear, technological outdating or obsolescence, depletion or other such factors.
Depreciation is an estimated or expected view of the decline in value of an asset. For example, an entity may depreciate its equipment by 15% per year. This rate should be reasonable in aggregate (such as when a manufacturing company is looking at all of its machinery), and consistently employed. However, there is no expectation that each individual item declines in value by the same amount, primarily because the recognition of depreciation is based upon the allocation of historical costs and not current market prices.
For historical cost purposes, assets are recorded on the balance sheet at their original cost; this is called the historical cost. Historical cost minus all depreciation expenses recognized on the asset since purchase is called the book value. Depreciation is not taken out of these assets directly. It is instead recorded in a contra asset account: an asset account with a normal credit balance, typically called "accumulated depreciation". Balancing an asset account with its corresponding accumulated depreciation account will result in the net book value. The net book value will never fall below the salvage value, meaning that once an asset is fully depreciated, no further expenses will be taken during its life. Salvage value is the estimated value of the asset at the end of its useful life. In this way, total depreciation for an asset will never exceed the estimated total cash outlay (depreciable basis) for the asset. The exception to this is in many price-regulated industries (public utilities) where salvage is estimated net of the cost of physically removing the asset from service. If the expected cost of removal exceeds the expected raw (or gross) salvage, then the net of the two (called net salvage) may be negative. In this case, the depreciation recorded on the regulated books may exceed the depreciable basis. Companies have no obligation to dispose of depreciated assets, of course, and many fully depreciated assets continue to generate income.
Recording a depreciation expense will involve a credit to an accumulated depreciation account.So the corresponding debit will involve either an expense account or an asset account which represents a future expense, such as work in process. Depreciation is recorded as an adjusting journal entry.
A write-down is a form of depreciation that involves a partial write off. Part of the value of the asset is removed from the balance sheet. The reason may be that the book value (accounted value) of the fixed asset has diverged from the market value and causes the company a loss. An example of this would be a revaluation of goodwill on an acquisition that went bad.
[edit] Methods of depreciation
There are several methods for calculating depreciation, generally based on either the passage of time or the level of activity (or use) of the asset.
(b) When I had delivered you out of Egypt.
Therefore the Sovereign God is showing us I would've regretted the manner of things like they were before the picnic was called off. Hurricane Fay was an example. She brought along many unneeded precautions. If somebody killed your daughter, what would be the Christian thing to do? To hate the killer or pray that he get saved?
2:3 Israel [was] c holiness to the LORD, [and] the firstfruits of his increase: all d that devour him shall offend; evil shall come upon them, saith the LORD.
Jesus is Almighty and everlasting and the only way to heaven.
Chosen above all others to serve the Lord only and the first offered to the Lord of all other nations.
Whoever challenged this people, or else annoyed them, was punished.
2:5 Thus saith the LORD, What iniquity have your fathers found in me, that they have gone e far from me, and have walked after vanity, and have become f vain?
That is, fallen to vile idolatry.
Altogether given to vanity, and are become blind and insensible as the idols that they serve.
2:6 Neither said they, Where [is] the LORD that brought us out of the land of Egypt, that led us through the wilderness, through a land of deserts and of pits, through a land of drought, and of g the shadow of death, through a land that no man passed through, and where no man dwelt?
Where for lack of all things needed for life, you could look for nothing every hour but present death.
2:7 And I brought you into a plentiful country, to eat the fruit of it and the goodness of it but when ye entered, ye defiled h my land, and made my heritage an abomination.
By your idolatry and wicked manners, (Psalms 78:58,106:38).
2:8 The priests said not, i Where [is] the LORD? and they that handle the k law knew me not: the l rulers also transgressed against me, and the prophets prophesied by m Baal, and walked after [things that] do not profit.
They did not teach the people to seek after God.
As the scribes, who would have expounded the law to the people.
Meaning, the princes and ministers: signifying, that all estates were corrupt.
That is, spoke vain things, and brought the people from the true worship of God to serve idols: for by Baal, which was the chief idol of the Moabites, are meant all idols.
2:9 Wherefore I will yet n plead with you, saith the LORD, and with your children’s children will I plead.
(n) Signifying that he would not as he might, straightway condemn them, but shows them by evident examples their great ingratitude that they might be ashamed and repent.
2:10 For pass over the isles of o Chittim, and see; and send to p Kedar, and consider diligently, and see if there is such a thing.
(o) Meaning, the Grecians and Italians.
(p) To Arabia.
2:11 Hath a nation changed [their] gods, which [are] yet no gods? but my people have changed their q glory for [that which] doth not r profit.
(q) That is, God who is their glory, and who makes them glorious above all other people, reproving the Jews that they were less diligent to serve the true God, than were the idolaters to honour their vanities.
(r) Meaning the idols who were their destruction, (Psalms 106:36).
2:12 Be astonished, O ye s heavens, at this, and be horribly afraid, be ye very desolate, saith the LORD.
(s) He shows that the insensible creatures abhor this vile ingratitude, and as it were tremble for fear of God’s great judgments against the same.
2:13 For my people have committed two evils; they have forsaken me t the fountain of living waters, [and] hewed out for themselves cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water.
(t) Signifying that when men forsake God’s word, which is the fountain of life, they reject God himself, and so fall to their own inventions, and vain confidence, and procure to themselves destruction, (Jonah 2:8; Zechariah 10:2).
2:14 [Is] Israel a u servant? [is] he a homeborn [slave]? why is he laid waste?
(u) Have I ordered them like servants and not like dearly beloved children? (Exodus 4:22) therefore it is their fault only, if the enemy spoil them.
2:15 The young x lions roared upon him, [and] yelled, and they made his land waste: his cities are burned without y inhabitant.
(x) The Babylonians, Chaldeans, and Assyrians.
(y) Not one will be left to dwell there.
2:16 Also the children of z Noph and Tahapanes have a broken the crown of thy head.
(z) That is, the Egyptians, for these were two great cities in Egypt.
(a) Have grievously vexed you at various times.
2:17 Hast thou not procured this to thyself, in that thou hast forsaken the LORD thy God, when he b led thee by the way?
(b) Showing that God would have still led them correctly, if they would have followed him.
2:18 And now what hast thou to do in the way of c Egypt, to drink the waters of Sihor? or what hast thou to do in the way of Assyria, to drink the waters of the d river?
c To seek help from man, as though God was not able enough to defend you, which is to drink from the puddles and to leave the fountain, (Isaiah 31:1).
That is, Euphrates.
2:19 Thy own wickedness shall e correct thee, and thy backslidings shall reprove thee: know therefore and see that [it is] an evil [thing] and bitter, that thou hast forsaken the LORD thy God, and that my fear [is] not in thee, saith the Lord GOD of hosts.
Meaning, that the wicked are insensible, till the punishment for their sin waken them as in (Jeremiah 2:26; Isaiah 3:9).
2:20 For of old time I have broken thy yoke, [and] burst thy bands; and thou saidst, f I will not transgress; when upon every high hill and under every green tree thou wanderest, playing the harlot.
When I delivered you out of Egypt, (Exodus 19:8; Deuteronomy 5:27; Joshua 24:16; Ezra 10:12; Hebrews 8:6).
2:22 For though thou shalt wash thee with g lye, and take thee much soap, [yet] thy iniquity is marked before me, saith the Lord GOD.
Though you use all the purifications and ceremonies of the law, you cannot escape punishment.
2:23 How canst thou say, I am not polluted, I have not h gone after Baalim? see thy way in the valley, know what thou hast done: [thou art] a swift i dromedary traversing her ways;
Meaning that hypocrites deny that they worship the idols, but that they honour God in them, and therefore they call their doings God’s service.
He compares the idolaters to these beasts, because they never cease running to and fro: for both valleys and hills are full of their idolatry.
2:24 A wild k donkey used to the wilderness, [that] snuffeth up the wind at her pleasure; in her occasion who can turn her away? all they that seek her will not weary themselves; in her l month they shall find her.
He compares the idolaters to a wild ass: for she can never be tamed nor yet wearied: for as she runs she can take her wind at every opportunity.
That is, when she is with foal, and therefore the hunters wait their time: so though you cannot be turned back now from your idolatry, yet when your iniquity will be at the fall, God will meet with you.
2:25 Withhold thy foot from m being unshod, and thy throat from thirst: but thou saidst, There is no hope: no; for I have loved strangers, and after them will I go.
By this he warns them that they should not go into strange countries to seek help: for they should but spend their labour, and hurt themselves, which is here meant by the bare foot and thirst, (Isaiah 57:10).
2:26 As the n thief is ashamed when he is found, so is the house of Israel ashamed; they, their kings, their princes, and their priests, and their prophets,
(n) As a thief will not acknowledge his fault, till he is taken with the deed, and ready to be punished, so they will not confess their idolatry, till the plagues due to the same light on them.
2:27 Saying to a tree, Thou [art] my o father; and to a stone, Thou hast brought me forth: for they have turned [their] back to me, and not [their] face: but in the time of their trouble they will say, Arise, and save us.
(o) Meaning, that idolaters rob God of his honour: and where as he has taught to call him the father of all flesh, they attribute this title to their idols.
2:28 But where [are] thy gods that thou hast made for thyself? let them arise, if they can save thee in the time of thy trouble: for [according p to] the number of thy cities are thy gods, O Judah.
(p) You thought that your gods of blocks and stones could have helped you, because they were many in number and present in every place: but now let us see whether either the multitude or their presence can deliver you from my plague, (Jeremiah 11:13).
2:29 Why will q ye plead with me? ye all have transgressed against me, saith the LORD.
(q) As though I did you injury in punishing you, seeing that your faults are so evident.
2:30 In vain have I smitten your children; they have received no correction: your r own sword hath devoured your prophets, like a destroying lion.
(r) That is, you have killed your prophets, that exhorted you to repentance, as Zechariah, Isaiah, etc.
2:31 O generation, see ye the word of the LORD. Have I been a s wilderness to Israel? a land of darkness? why say my people, We are lords; t we will come no more to thee?
The general term “wilderness” may sound like it refers only to desolate or desert areas, but in the context of Palestine it has wider connotations. Wilderness isn’t just a type of place, it’s also a concept when it comes to biblical texts. The Hebrew word used for wilderness, midbar, doesn’t just mean “a desolate and deserted place,” it also means “that which is beyond.” Typically, it means “beyond” organized settlements, the control of the government, and traditional civilized norms.
Where is Wilderness?:
Often the “wilderness” was pastoral land with plenty of water and vegetation but no permanent settlements or villages. In fact the Hebrew word originally meant “place of herding.” It could even be a wooded area or have a river — John the Baptist performed baptisms in the wilderness. Almost any place beyond the immediate reach of a city or village could qualify as wilderness. Sometimes the wilderness was perceived as an abode of evil spirits; often, though, it was the abode of bandits insead.
Why is Wilderness important?:
Usually the biblical references to Wilderness are negative: it’s a place of thirst, hunger, deprivation of all sorts, windswept, haunted, etc. At the same time, though, there are signs of romanticization of a nomadic past where one is not hemmed in by the rules of city life.
Quite often prophets wandered in the wilderness to be “tested” or “tempted,” thus making the wilderness a place of spiritual renewal. Surviving in the wilderness demonstrated that one was able to overcome physical and psychological dangers — not just because one was cut off from ready sources of food or water, but also from their community. Whenever the Bible references a wilderness, readers should look beyond the mere physical manifestation and consider the wider ramifications of what it might mean.
(s) Have I not given them abundance of all things?
(t) But will trust in our own power and policy.
2:33 Why trimmest thou thy way to u seek love? therefore hast thou also taught the wicked ones thy ways.
(u) With strangers.
Saint Paul the apostle (Hebrew: שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning "Saul of Tarsus", Ancient Greek: Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and Παῦλος Paulos[1]), the "Apostle to the Gentiles"[2] (ca 5 - 67CE) was, together with Saint Peter and James the Just,[3] the most notable of early Christian missionaries. Unlike the Twelve Apostles, there is no indication that Paul, born in Tarsus, ever met Jesus before the latter's crucifixion.[4] According to Acts, his conversion took place as he was traveling the road to Damascus, and experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus.[5] Paul asserts that he received the Gospel not from man, but by "the revelation of Jesus Christ".[6]
Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are traditionally attributed to Paul, though in some cases the authorship is disputed. Paul had often employed an amanuensis, only occasionally writing himself.[7][8] As a sign of authenticity, the writers of these epistles[9] sometimes employ a passage presented as being in Paul's own handwriting. These epistles were circulated within the Christian community. They were prominent in the first New Testament canon ever proposed (by Marcion), and they were eventually included in the orthodox Christian canon of Scripture. They are believed to be the earliest-written books of the New Testament.
Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.[10] His influence on the main strands of Christian thought has been demonstrable: from St. Augustine of Hippo to the controversies between Gottschalk and Hincmar of Reims; between Thomism and Molinism; Martin Luther, John Calvin and the Arminians; to Jansenism and the Jesuit theologians, and even to the German church of the twentieth century through the writings of the scholar Karl Barth, whose commentary on the Letter to the Romans had a political as well as theological impact.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Sources of information
* 2 Early life
* 3 Mission
o 3.1 First missionary journey
o 3.2 Council of Jerusalem
+ 3.2.1 Paul's visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles
o 3.3 Second missionary journey
o 3.4 Third missionary journey
* 4 Arrest and death
* 5 Writings
o 5.1 Authorship
o 5.2 Paul and Jesus
o 5.3 Holy Spirit
o 5.4 Relationship with Judaism
o 5.5 Resurrection
o 5.6 The World to come
* 6 Speculative views
* 7 See also
* 8 Notes
* 9 References
* 10 External links
[edit] Sources of information
Events in Paul the Apostle's Life, Acts
* Early life
o Tarsus
o Gamaliel
o Martyrdom of Stephen
* Conversion near Damascus
* First Mission, with Barnabas
o Antioch
o Seleucia
o Cyprus
o Salamis
o Paphos
o Perge
o Antioch in Pisidia
o Konya
o Derbe
o Lystra
o Antalya
* Council of Jerusalem
* Split with Barnabas Acts 15:36-41
* Second Mission, with Silas
o Antioch
o Cilicia
o Derbe, Timothy
o Lystra
o Phrygia
o Galatia, Titus
o Mysia
o Samothrace
o Neapolis
o Philippi
o Amphipolis
o Apollonia
o Thessalonica
o Beroea
o Athens
o Corinth, Priscilla & Aquila
o Cenchreae
o Ephesus
o Syria
o Caesarea
o Jerusalem
* Third Mission, with Silas
o Antioch
o Galatia
o Phrygia
o Ephesus, Apollos
o Macedonia
o Corinth
o Cenchreae
o Macedonia
o Troas
o Assos
o Mytilene
o Chios
o Samos
o Miletus
o Cos
o Rhodes
o Patara
o Tyre
o Ptolemais
o Caesarea
* Arrest & Trials
o Jerusalem
o Caesarea
+ Felix
+ Festus
+ Agrippa II
o Malta Shipwreck
o Rome
o Death
* Epistles
o Romans
o 1 Corinthians
o 2 Corinthians
o Galatians
o Ephesians
o Philippians
o Colossians
o 1 Thess.
o 2 Thess.
o 1 Timothy
o 2 Timothy
o Titus
o Philemon
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In trying to reconstruct the events of Paul's life the main sources are Paul's own letters and the Acts of the Apostles, traditionally attributed to St. Luke.[11] Different views are held as to the reliability of the latter. Some scholars, such as Hans Conzelmann and 20th century theologian John Knox (not the 16th century John Knox), dispute the historical accuracy of Acts.[12][13] Even allowing for omissions in Paul's own account, which is found particularly in Galatians, there are many differences between his account and that in Acts.[14] (Please see the full discussion in Acts of the Apostles). The Acts of Paul and the Clementine literature also contain information about Saint Paul.
[edit] Early life
Saint Paul's conversion, by Jean Fouquet.
Saint Paul's conversion, by Jean Fouquet.
According to Acts,[15] Paul was born in Tarsus, Cilicia in Asia Minor, or modern-day Turkey, under the name Saul, "an Israelite of the tribe of Benjamin, circumcised on the eighth day" (Philippians 3:5). However, Paul's own letters never mention this as his birthplace, nor is the name "Saul" alluded to. Acts records that Paul was a Roman citizen — a privilege he used a number of times in his defence, appealing against convictions in Judaea to Rome (Acts 22:25 and Acts 27–28). According to Christian tradition, his parents lived in Jish, Galilee.[16] According to Acts 22:3, he studied in Jerusalem under the Rabbi Gamaliel, well known in Paul's time. There is at least some doubt about this story, as Paul writes in Galatians 1:15-17 that he was unknown by face to those in Jerusalem before visiting there as an adult[citation needed]. He described himself as a Pharisee (Philippians 3:5). He supported himself during his travels and while preaching — a fact he alludes to a number of times (e.g., 1 Corinthians 9:13–15). According to Acts 18:3 he worked as a tentmaker.
Although Saul was educated as a Pharisee in House of Hillel Halakha under Gamaliel, Epiphanius cites an Ebionite tradition that in order to marry the High Priest's daughter, Paul converted to the Sadduccee faction which controlled the Sanhedrin at the time. He first appears in the pages of the New Testament as a witness to the martyrdom of Stephen (Acts 7:57-8:3). He was, as he described himself, a persistent persecutor of the Church (1 Corinthians 15:9, Galatians 1:13) (almost all of whose members were Jewish or Jewish proselytes), until his experience on the Road to Damascus which resulted in his conversion. Ebionite tradition recorded by Eusebius asserts that he joined the Jesus movement only after his love for the High Priest's daughter was spurned. Paul himself is very disinclined to talk about the precise character of his conversion (Galatians 1:11–24) though he uses it as authority for his independence from the apostles. In Acts there are three accounts of his conversion experience:
* The first is a description of the event itself (Acts 9:1–20) in which he is described as falling to the ground, as a result of a flash of light from the sky, hearing the words "Saul, Saul why are you persecuting me?"
* The second is Paul's witness to the event before the crowd in Jerusalem (Acts 22:1–22).
* The third is his testimony before King Agrippa II (Acts 26:1–24).
In the accounts, he is described as being led by those he was traveling with , blinded by the light, to Damascus where his sight was restored by a disciple called Ananias then he was baptized.
[edit] Mission
Bab Kisan, where Paul is said to have escaped from Damascus.
Bab Kisan, where Paul is said to have escaped from Damascus.
Following his stay in Damascus after his conversion, where he was baptized,[17] Paul says that he first went to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus (Galatians 1:17). According to Acts, his preaching in the local synagogues got him into trouble there, and he was forced to escape, being let down over the wall in a basket (Acts 9:23). He describes in Galatians, how three years after his conversion, he went to Jerusalem, where he met James, and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days (Galatians 1:13–24). According to Acts, he apparently attempted to join the disciples and was accepted only owing to the intercession of Barnabas — they were all understandably afraid of him as one who had been a persecutor of the Church (Acts 9:26–27). Again, according to Acts, he got into trouble for disputing with "Hellenists" (Koine Greek speaking Jews and Gentile "God-fearers") and so he was sent back to Tarsus.
Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.[18] It is not known exactly what happened during these so-called "unknown years," but both Acts and Galatians provide some details.[19] At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch (Acts 11:26).
When a famine occurred in Judaea, around 45–46,[20] Paul, along with Barnabas and a Gentile named Titus, journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.[21] According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative centre for Christians, following the dispersion after the death of Stephen. It was at this time in Antioch, Acts reports, the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians."[22]
[edit] First missionary journey
Paul’s first missionary journey begins in Acts 13 in Antioch in approximately AD 47. During this period the Christian church here grew in prominence partially owing to Jewish Christians fleeing from Jerusalem.[23] The Holy Spirit, speaking through one of the prophets listed in Acts 13:1, identifies Barnabas and Saul to be appointed “for the work which I have called them to.” The group then releases the pair from the church to spread the Gospel into the predominantly Gentile mission field. The significance of the Holy Spirit selecting him can be seen in Galatians 1:1 when Paul states that he is made an apostle “not through man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father.”
Traveling via the port of Seleucia Pieria, Barnabas and Saul’s initial destination is the island of Cyprus of which Barnabas had intimate knowledge, as he grew up there Acts 4:36. Preaching throughout the island, it is not until reaching the city of Paphos that they meet the magician and false prophet Bar-Jesus, described by Luke as “full of deceit and all fraud”. The two rebuke the magician, causing him to go blind and, upon seeing this Sergius Paulus, is astonished at the teaching of the Lord.
The house of St. Ananias in Damascus
The house of St. Ananias in Damascus
Once having left Cyprus, Saul exchanges his Hebrew name for the more appropriate Greco-Roman name of Paul for ministering to the Gentiles. It is also here that their helper John Mark departs them - an act which later becomes a source of much tension between Paul and Barnabas and ultimately leading to their split in Acts 15:36-41. The two then set about strategically preaching to major cities as they make their way across the provinces of Asia Minor. Traveling on to Lystra where no mention is made of any God fearing gentiles, it can be assumed that there was most likely no synagogue here.[24] With no formal place to preach in they come across a man who has been crippled from birth. Seeing that the man has faith enough to be healed at Paul's instruction, he gets up and walks. In spite of this the Lystrians are now convinced that the two are the human incarnation of Zeus and Hermes and proceed to sacrifice oxen before them. Paul and Barnabas are so distraught at this that they tear off their clothes and cry out to the people. Pleading with the crowd, the style of preaching becomes more basic as Lystra has no knowledge of God. Paul starts from the basics by stating that God is a living God who made the heavens, earth and seas (Acts 14:15).
Paul is then hunted by disgruntled Jews from Antioch and Iconium and is stoned to the point where he is thought to be dead. Amazingly he gets to his feet and flees to Derbe and preaches the word there. He then opts to return to the cities he visited to encourage disciples, establish churches and appoint elders. This emphasis on the role of the whole church is strengthened once at home in Antioch where he finally gathers together the unified church to report to them on all his experiences. Here he summarises the aim of his journey well, to “give God the honor and the glory” (Acts 15:4)
Part of this first missionary journey can be walked today in the Saint Paul Trail, a long-distance footpath in Turkey.
[edit] Council of Jerusalem
Main article: Council of Jerusalem
According to Acts 15, Paul attended a meeting of the apostles and elders held in Jerusalem where they discussed the question of circumcision of Gentile Christians and whether Christians should follow the Mosaic law. Traditionally, this meeting is called the Council of Jerusalem,[25] though nowhere is it called so in the text of the New Testament. Paul and the apostles apparently met at Jerusalem several times. Unfortunately, there is some difficulty in determining the sequence of the meetings and exact course of events.[26] Some Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, some meetings are mentioned in Paul's letters, and some appear to be mentioned in both.[27] For example, it has been suggested that the Jerusalem visit for famine relief implied in Acts 11:27–30 corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only) narrated in Galatians 1:18–20.[27] In Galatians 2:1, Paul describes a "second visit" to Jerusalem as a private occasion, whereas Acts 15 describes a public meeting in Jerusalem addressed by James at its conclusion. Thus, while most[27][28] think that Galatians 2:1 corresponds to the Council of Jerusalem in Acts 15, others[who?] think that Paul is referring here to the meeting in Acts 11 (the "famine visit"). Other conjectures have been offered: the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than the first visit;[29] If there was a public rather than a private meeting, it seems likely that it took place after Galatians was written.[30]
According to Acts, Paul and Barnabas were appointed to go to Jerusalem to speak with the apostles and elders and were welcomed by them.[31] The key question raised (in both Acts and Galatians and which is not in dispute) was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised (Acts 15:2ff; Galatians 2:1ff). Paul states that he had attended "in response to a revelation and to lay before them the gospel that I preached among the Gentiles" (Galatians 2:2). Peter publicly reaffirmed a decision he had made previously (Acts 10-11), proclaiming: "[God] put no difference between us and them, purifying their hearts by faith" (Acts 15:9), echoing an earlier statement: "Of a truth I perceive that God is no respecter of persons" (Acts 10:34). James concurred: "We should not trouble those of the Gentiles who are turning to God" (Acts 15:19–21), and a letter (later known as the Apostolic Decree) was sent back with Paul to the Gentiles who Honoured God's name enjoining them from idolatry, from bloodshed, from unkashered meat, and from sexual immorality (Acts 15:29), which some consider related to Noahide Law[32] while others instead see a connection to Leviticus 17 and 18.[33]
Despite the agreement they achieved at the meeting as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch"[34] over his reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch. Paul later wrote: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong" and said to the apostle: "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?" (Galatians 2:11–14). Paul also mentioned that even Barnabas sided with Peter.[35] On the incident, the Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers: The Incident at Antioch states: "St. Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that St. Peter saw the justice of the rebuke." However, L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity states: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return."[36] (see also Pauline Christianity). Acts does not record this event, saying only that "some time later," Paul decided to leave Antioch (usually considered the beginning of his "Second Missionary Journey," (Acts 15:36–18:22) with the object of visiting the believers in the towns where he and Barnabas had preached earlier, but this time without Barnabas. At this point the Galatians witness ceases.
[edit] Paul's visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles
This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.[27]
Acts Epistles
* First visit to Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–27)
o after Damascus conversion
o preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas
* Second visit to Jerusalem (Acts 11:29–30)
o For famine relief
* Third visit to Jerusalem (Acts 15:1–19)
o With Barnabas
o "Council of Jerusalem"
* Fourth visit to Jerusalem (Acts 18:21–22)
o To "keep the feast" (Acts 18:21)
* Fifth visit to Jerusalem (Acts 21:17ff)
o Paul arrested
* No visit to Jerusalem immediately after conversion (Galatians 1:17–18)
* First visit to Jerusalem (Galatians 1:18–20)
o Sees only Cephas (Peter) and James
* Second visit to Jerusalem (Galatians 2:1–10)
o With Barnabas and Titus
o Possibly the "Council of Jerusalem"
o Paul agrees to "remember the poor"
o Followed by confrontation with Peter in Antioch (Galatians 2:11–14)
* Third visit to Jerusalem (Romans 15:25ff, 2 Corinthians 8–9, 1 Corinthians 16:1–3)
o Paul delivers the collection for the poor
[edit] Second missionary journey
Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th-early 7th century (Musée de Cluny)
Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th-early 7th century (Musée de Cluny)
And following a dispute between Paul and Barnabas over whether they should take John Mark with them, they go on separate journeys (Acts 15:36–41) — Barnabas with John Mark, and Paul with Silas.
Following Acts 16:1–18:22, Paul and Silas go to Derbe and then Lystra. They are joined by Timothy, the son of a Jewish woman and a Greek man. According to Acts 16:3, Paul circumcises Timothy before leaving.[37]
They continue to Phrygia and northern Galatia to Troas, when, inspired by a vision they set off for Macedonia. At Philippi they meet and bring to faith a wealthy woman named Lydia of Thyatira, they then baptize her and her household; there Paul is also arrested and badly beaten. According to Acts, Paul then sets off for Thessalonica.[38] This accords with Paul's own account (1 Thessalonians 2:2), though, given that he had been in Philippi only "some days," the church must have been founded by someone other than Paul. According to Acts, Paul then comes to Athens where he gives his speech in the Areopagus; in this speech, he tells Athenians that the "Unknown God" to whom they had a shrine is in fact known, as the God who had raised Jesus from the dead. (Acts 17:16–34)
Greek Orthodox Cathedral of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth, Greece
Greek Orthodox Cathedral of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth, Greece
Thereafter Paul travelled to Corinth, where he settled for three years and where he may have written 1 Thessalonians which is estimated to have been written in 50 or 51.[11] At Corinth, (Acts 18:12–17) the "Jews united" and charged Paul with "persuading the people to worship God in ways contrary to the law"; the proconsul Gallio then judged that it was an internal religious dispute and dismissed the charges. "Then all of them (Other ancient authorities read all the Greeks) seized Sosthenes, the official of the synagogue, and beat him in front of the tribunal. But Gallio paid no attention to any of these things."[39] From an inscription in Delphi that mentions Gallio held office from 51–52 or 52–53,[11] the year of the hearing must have been in this time period, which is the only fixed date in the chronology of Paul's life.[40]
[edit] Third missionary journey
Following this hearing, Paul continued his preaching, usually called his "third missionary journey" (Acts 18:23–21:26), traveling again through Asia Minor and Macedonia, to Antioch and back. He caused a great uproar in the theatre in Ephesus, where local silversmiths feared loss of income due to Paul's activities. Their income relied on the sale of silver statues (idols) of the goddess Artemis, whom they worshipped; the resulting mob almost killed Paul (Acts 19:21–41) and his companions. Later, as Paul was passing near Ephesus on his way to Jerusalem, Paul chose not to stop, since he was in haste to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost.[41] The church here, however, was so highly regarded by Paul that he called the elders to Miletus to meet with him (Acts 20:16–38).
[edit] Arrest and death
According to Acts 21:17–26, upon his arrival in Jerusalem, the Apostle Paul provided a detailed account to James regarding his ministry among the Gentiles, it states further that all the Elders were present. James and the Elders praised God for the report which they received. Afterward the elders informed him of rumors that had been circulating, which stated that he was teaching Jews to forsake observance of the Mosaic law, and the customs of the Jews; including circumcision. To rebut these rumors, the elders asked Paul to join with four other men in performing the vow of purification according to Mosaic law, in order to disprove the accusations of the Jews. Paul agreed, and proceeded to perform the vow. See Also: Relationship with Judaism
A Greek language inscription from Herod's Temple, late 1st century BC. It warns gentiles to refrain from entering the Temple enclosure, on pain of death.
A Greek language inscription from Herod's Temple, late 1st century BC. It warns gentiles to refrain from entering the Temple enclosure, on pain of death.
Some of the Jews had seen Paul accompanied by a Gentile, and assumed that he had brought the Gentile into the temple, which if he had been found guilty of such, would have carried the death penalty.[42] The Jews were on the verge of killing Paul when Roman soldiers intervened. The Roman commander took Paul into custody to be scourged and questioned, and imprisoned him, first in Jerusalem, and then in Caesarea.
Paul claimed his right as a Roman citizen to be tried in Rome, but owing to the inaction of the governor Antonius Felix, Paul languished in confinement at Caesarea for two years. When a new governor (Porcius Festus) took office, Paul was sent by sea to Rome. During this trip to Rome, Paul was shipwrecked on Malta, where Acts states that he preached the Gospel, and the people converted to Christianity. The Roman Catholic church has named the Apostle Paul as the patron saint of Malta in observance of his work there. It is thought that Paul continued his journey by sea to Syracuse, on the Italian island of Sicily before eventually going to Rome. According to Acts 28:30–31, Paul spent another two years in Rome under house arrest, where he continued to preach the gospel and teach about Jesus being the Christ.
Of his detention in Rome, Philippians provides some additional support. It was clearly written from prison and references to the "praetorian guard" and "Caesar's household," which may suggest that it was written from Rome.
Whether Paul died in Rome, or was able to go to Spain as he had hoped, as noted in his letter to the Romans (Romans 15:22–27), is uncertain. 1 Clement reports this about Paul:[43]
"By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."
Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martydom is the most reasonable interpretation."[44]
Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the fourth century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, may reflect the day of his martyrdom, other sources have articulated the tradition that Peter and Paul died on the same day (and possibly the same year).[45] Some hold the view that he could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed (2 Timothy 4:13). A Roman Catholic tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome (now in the process of being excavated). Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. However, Bede's use of the word "relic" was not limited to corporal remains.
[edit] Writings
Main article: Authorship of the Pauline Epistles
[edit] Authorship
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas).
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas).
Saint Paul is the second most prolific contributor to the New Testament (after Luke, whose two books amount to nearly a third of the New Testament). Thirteen letters are attributed to him with varying degrees of confidence.[46] The letters are written in Koine Greek and it may be that he employed an amanuensis, only occasionally writing himself.[47] The undisputed Pauline epistles contain the earliest systematic account of Christian doctrine, and provide information on the life of the infant Church. They are arguably the oldest part of the New Testament. Paul also appears in the pages of the Acts of the Apostles, attributed to Luke, so that it is possible to compare the account of his life in the Acts with his own account in his various letters. His letters are largely written to churches which he had founded or visited; he was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Macedonia, mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome bringing the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth with him. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians should believe and how they should live. He does not tell his correspondents (or the modern reader) much about the life of Jesus; his most explicit references are to the Last Supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34) and the crucifixion and resurrection (1 Corinthians 15 1 Corinthians 15). His specific references to Jesus' teaching are likewise sparse (1 Corinthians 7:10-11, 9:14), raising the question, still disputed, as to how consistent his account of the faith is with that of the four canonical Gospels, Acts, and the Epistle of James. The view that Paul's Christ is very different from the historical Jesus has been expounded by Adolf Harnack among many others. Nevertheless, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus of Christian spirituality.
Of the thirteen letters traditionally attributed to Paul and included in the Western New Testament canon, there is little or no dispute that Paul actually wrote at least seven, those being Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Hebrews, which was ascribed to him in antiquity, was questioned even then, never having an ancient attribution, and in modern times is considered by most experts as not by Paul (see also Antilegomena). The authorship of the remaining six Pauline epistles is disputed to varying degrees.
The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as 'the image of the invisible God,' a Christology found elsewhere only in St. John's gospel. On the other hand, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. More problematic is Ephesians, a very similar letter to Colossians, but which reads more like a manifesto than a letter. It is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique; it lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the grudging reference in 1 Corinthians 7:8-9. Finally it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now past.[48] The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul of Tarsus's thinking.
The Pastoral Epistles, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus have likewise been put in question as Pauline works. Three main reasons are advanced: first, their difference in vocabulary, style and theology from Paul's acknowledged writings; secondly, the difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as we have it.[49] They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter. Finally, the concerns expressed are very much the practical ones as to how a church should function. They are more about maintenance than about mission.
2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds, with scholars noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus.
[edit] Paul and Jesus
Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia).
Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia).
Main article: Atonement
Little can be deduced about the historical life of Jesus from Paul's letters. He mentions specifically the Last Supper (1 Corinthians 11:23ff), his death by crucifixion (1 Corinthians 2:2; Philippians 2:8), and his resurrection (Philippians 2:9). In addition, Paul states that Jesus was a Jew of the line of David (Romans 1:3) who was betrayed (1 Corinthians 11:12). Paul concentrates instead on the nature of Christians' relationship with Christ and, in particular, on Christ's saving work. In Mark's gospel, Jesus is recorded as saying that he was to "give up his life as a ransom for many."[50] Paul's account of this idea of a saving act is more fully articulated in various places in his letters, most notably in his letter to the Romans.
What Christ has achieved for those who believe in him is variously described: as sinners under the law, they are "justified by his grace as a gift"; they are "redeemed" by Jesus who was put forward by God as expiation; they are "reconciled" by his death; his death was a propitiatory or expiatory sacrifice or a ransom paid. The gift (grace) is to be received in faith (Romans 3:24; Romans 5:9).
Justification derives from the law courts.[51] Those who are justified are acquitted of an offence. Since the sinner is guilty, he or she can only be acquitted by someone else, Jesus, standing in for them, which has led many Christians to believe in the teaching known as the doctrine of penal substitution. The sinner is, in Paul's words "justified by faith" (Romans 5:1), that is, by adhering to Christ, the sinner becomes at one with Christ in his death and resurrection (hence the word "atonement"). Acquittal, however, is achieved not on the grounds that we share in Christ's innocence, but on the grounds of his sacrifice (crucifixion), i.e., his innocent undergoing of punishment on behalf of sinners who should have suffered divine retribution for their sins. They deserved to be punished and he took their punishment. They are justified by his death, and now "so much more we are saved by him from divine retribution" (Romans 5:9).
For an understanding of the meaning of faith as that which justifies, Paul turns to Abraham, who trusted God's promise that he would be father of many nations. Abraham preceded the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. Abraham could not, of course, have faith in the living Christ but, in Paul's view, "the gospel was preached to him beforehand" (Galatians 3:8); this is in line with Paul's belief in the pre-existence of Christ (cf. Philippians 2:5–11.[52]
Within the last three decades, a number of theologians have put forward a "new perspective" on Paul's doctrine of justification, and even more specifically on what he says about justification by faith. Justification by faith means God accepts Gentiles in addition to Jews, since both believe in God. Paul writes in his letter to the Romans, "For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from observing the law. Is God the God of Jews only? Is he not the God of Gentiles too? Yes, of Gentiles too, since there is only one God, who will justify the circumcised by faith and the uncircumcised through that same faith" (Romans 3:28-30). Faith is the central component of Paul's doctrine of justification -- it means that Gentiles don't need to become Israelites when they convert to Christianity, because God is not just the God of one nation, but Gentile and Jew alike.[53]
The St. Paul column (Valletta, Malta).
The St. Paul column (Valletta, Malta).
Redemption has a different origin, that of the freeing of slaves; it is similar in character as a transaction to the paying of a ransom, (cf. Mark 10:45) though the circumstances are different. Money was paid in order to set free a slave who was in the ownership of another. Here the price was the costly act of Christ's death. On the other hand, no price was paid to anyone — Paul does not suggest, for instance, that the price be paid to the devil — though this has been suggested by learned writers, ancient and modern,[54] such as Origen and St. Augustine, as a reversal of the Fall by which the devil gained power over humankind.
A third expression, reconciliation, is about the making of peace (Colossians 1:20 and Romans 5:9), another variant of the same theme. Elsewhere (Ephesians 2:14) he writes of Christ breaking down the dividing wall between Jew and Gentile, which the law constituted.
Sacrifice is an idea often elided with justification, but carries with it either the notion of appeasing the wrath of God (propitiation) or dealing with sin (expiation).
As to how a person appropriates this gift, Paul writes of a mystical union with Christ through baptism: "we who have been baptised into Christ Jesus were baptised into his death" (Romans 6:4). He writes also of our being "in Christ Jesus" and alternately, of "Christ in you, the hope of glory." Thus, the objection that one person cannot be punished on behalf of another is met with the idea of the identification of the Christian with Christ through baptism.
These expressions, some of which are to be found in the course of the same exposition, have been interpreted by some scholars, such as the mediaeval teacher Peter Abelard and, much more recently, Hastings Rashdall,[55] as metaphors for the effects of Christ's death upon those who followed him. This is known as the "subjective theory of the atonement." On this view, rather than writing a systematic theology, Paul is trying to express something inexpressible. According to Ian Markham, on the other hand, the letter to the Romans is "muddled."[56]
But others, ancient and modern, Protestant and Catholic, have sought to elaborate from his writing objective theories of the Atonement on which they have, however, disagreed. The doctrine of justification by faith alone was the major source of the division of western Christianity known as the Protestant Reformation which took place in the sixteenth century. Justification by faith was set against salvation by works of the law — in this case, the acquiring of indulgences from the Church and even such good works as the corporal works of mercy. The result of the dispute, which undermined the system of endowed prayers and the doctrine of purgatory, contributed to the creation of Protestant churches in Western Europe, set against the Roman Catholic Church. Solifidianism (from sola fide, the Latin for "faith alone"), the name often given to these views, is associated with the works of Martin Luther (1483 — 1546) and his followers.
The various doctrines of the atonement have been associated with such theologians as Anselm;[57] John Calvin;[58] and more recently Gustaf Aulén;[59] none found their way into the Creeds. The substitutionary theory (above), in particular, has fiercely divided Christendom; some pronouncing it essential and others repugnant.[60] (In law, no one can be punished instead of another and the punishment of the innocent is a prime example of injustice — which tells against too precise an interpretation of the atonement as a legal act.)[61]
Further, because salvation could not be achieved by merit, Paul lays some stress on the notion of its being a free gift, a matter of Grace. Whereas grace is most often associated specifically with the Holy Spirit, in St. Paul's writing, grace is received through Jesus (Romans 1:5), from God through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus (Romans 3:24, and especially in 2 Corinthians 13:14). On the other hand, the Spirit he describes is the Spirit of Christ (see below). The notion of free gift, not the subject of entitlement, has been associated with belief in predestination and, more controversially, double predestination: that God has chosen whom He wills to have mercy on and those whose will He has hardened (Romans 9:18f.).
Paul's concern with what Christ had done, as described above, was matched by his desire to say also who Jesus was (and is). At the beginning of his letter to the Romans, he describes Jesus as the "Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead"; in the letter to the Colossians, he is much more explicit, describing Jesus as "the image of the invisible God," (Colossians 1:15) as rich and exalted a picture of Jesus as can be found anywhere in the New Testament (which is one reason why some doubt its authenticity)[62] On the other hand, in the undisputedly Pauline letter to the Church at Philippi, he describes Jesus as "in the form of God" who "did not count equality with God as a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men he humbled himself and became obedient to death, even death on a cross…" (Philippians 2:5-7).
[edit] Holy Spirit
In considering the manifestations of the Spirit, Paul is varied in his instructions. Thus, when discussing the gift of tongues in his first letter to the Corinthians (1 Corinthians 14), as against the unintelligible words of ecstasy, he commends, by contrast, intelligibility and order.
Paul argues that not all things permissible are good; he condemns eating meats that have been offered to pagan idols, frequenting pagan temples, and orgiastic feasting. On the contrary, he calls the Spirit a uniting force, manifesting Himself through the common purpose expressed in the exercise of their different gifts (1 Corinthians 12) He compares the Christian community to a human body, with its different limbs and organs, and the Spirit as the Spirit of Christ. The gifts range from administration to teaching, encouragement to healing, prophecy to the working of miracles. The fruits are the virtues of love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, faithfulness, gentleness and self control (Galatians 5:22). Love is the "most excellent" of all (1 Corinthians 13).
Furthermore, the new life is the life of the Spirit, as against the life of the flesh, which Spirit is the Spirit of Christ, so that one becomes a son of God. God is our Father and we are fellow heirs of Christ (Romans 8:14).
[edit] Relationship with Judaism
See also: Circumcision controversy in early Christianity and Christianity and Judaism
Paul, himself a circumcised Jew, appeared to praise Jewish circumcision in Romans 3:1–2, but says that circumcision doesn't matter in 1 Corinthians 7:19. In Galatians, meanwhile, he accuses those who promote circumcision of wanting to make a good showing in the flesh and boasting or glorying in the flesh in Galatians 6:11–13.[improper synthesis?] He also questions the authority of the law, and though he may have opposed observance by Gentiles he also opposed Peter for his partial observance. In a later letter, Philippians 3:2, he is reported as warning Christians to beware the "mutilation"[63] and to "watch out for those dogs." He writes that there is neither Jew nor Greek, but Christ is all and in all. On the other hand, in Acts, he is described as submitting to taking a Nazirite vow, [64] and earlier to having had Timothy circumcised to placate "certain Jews". [65] He also wrote that among the Jews he became as a Jew in order to win Jews (1 Corinthians 9:20) and to the Romans: "So the law is holy, and the commandment is holy and just and good" (Romans 7:12).
However, considerable disagreement at the time and subsequently has been raised as to the significance of Works of the Law.[66] In the same letter in which Paul writes of justification by faith, he says of the Gentiles: "It is not by hearing the law, but by doing it that men will be justified (same word) by God." (Romans 2:12) Those who think Paul was consistent have judged him not to be a Solifidianist himself; others hold that he is merely demonstrating that both Jews and Gentiles are in the same condition of sin.
Some scholars find that Paul's agreement to perform the vow of purification noted in Acts 21:18–26 and his circumcision of Timothy noted in Acts 16:3, are difficult to reconcile with his personally expressed attitude to the Law in portions of Galatians and Philippians. For example, J. W. McGarvey's Commentary on Acts 21:18–26[67] states:
“ This I confess to be the most difficult passage in Acts to fully understand, and to reconcile with the teaching of Paul on the subject of the Mosaic law. ”
And his Commentary on Acts 16:3[68] states:
“ The circumcision of Timothy is quite a remarkable event in the history of Paul, and presents a serious injury as to the consistency of his teaching and of his practice, in reference to this Abrahamic rite. It demands of us, at this place, as full consideration as our limits will admit. ”
This is generally reconciled by arguing that Paul's attitude to the Law was flexible, for instance the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia[69] writes:
“ Paul, on the other hand, not only did not object to the observance of the Mosaic Law, as long as it did not interfere with the liberty of the Gentiles, but he conformed to its prescriptions when occasion required (1 Corinthians 9:20). ”
The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia article on Gentile: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah notes the following reconciliation:
“ R. Emden, in a remarkable apology for Christianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam" (pp. 32b-34b, Hamburg, 1752), gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the Gentiles to the seven moral laws of Noah and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic law — which explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding the laws of Moses and the Sabbath. ”
E. P. Sanders in 1977[70] reframed the context to make law-keeping and good works a sign of being in the Covenant (marking out the Jews as the people of God) rather than deeds performed in order to accomplish salvation (so-called Legalism (theology)), a pattern of religion he termed "covenantal nomism." If Sanders' perspective is valid, the traditional Protestant understanding of the doctrine of justification may have needed rethinking, for the interpretive framework of Martin Luther was called into question.
Sanders' work has since been taken up by Professor James Dunn[71] and N.T. Wright,[72] Anglican Bishop of Durham, and the New Perspective. Wright, noting the apparent discrepancy between Romans and Galatians, the former being much more positive about the continuing covenantal relationship between God and his ancient people, than the latter, contends that works are not insignificant (Romans 2:13ff) and that Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.[citation needed]
[edit] Resurrection
See also: Resurrection of the dead and 1 Corinthians 15
Paul appears to develop his ideas in response to the particular congregation to whom he is writing (1 Corinthians 9:19-23). He writes of the hope given to all who belong to Christ, including those who have already died and been baptised vicariously by others on their behalf so that they may be included among the saved (1 Corinthians 15:29) (whether or not Paul of Tarsus approved of the practice, he was apparently prepared to use it as part of his argument in favour of the resurrection of the dead).
[edit] The World to come
See also: Second Coming and End times
Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and, secondly, when they should expect the end. Paul regarded the age as passing and, in such difficult times, he therefore encouraged marriage as a means of happiness. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive (1 Thessalonians 4:16ff). This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages his hearers to expect a delay.[73] The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of lawlessness (2 Thessalonians 2:3ff) whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.
The delay in the coming of the end has been interpreted in different ways: on one view, Paul of Tarsus and the early Christians were simply mistaken; on another, that of Austin Farrer, his presentation of a single ending can be interpreted to accommodate the fact that endings occur all the time and that, subjectively, we all stand an instant from judgement. The delay is also accounted for by God's patience ((2 Thessalonians 2:6).
As for the form of the end, the Catholic Encyclopedia presents two distinct ideas. First, universal judgement, with neither the good nor the wicked omitted (Romans 14:10–12), nor even the angels (1 Corinthians 6:3). Second, and more controversially, judgment will be according to faith and works, mentioned concerning sinners (2 Corinthians 11:15), the just (2 Timothy 4:14), and men in general (Romans 2:6–9).
[edit] Speculative views
The conversion on the way to Damascus, by Caravaggio.
The conversion on the way to Damascus, by Caravaggio.
Main article: Pauline Christianity
Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton and an authority on Gnosticism, argues that Paul was a Gnostic [74] and that the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries written to rebut this. Pagels maintains that the majority of the Christian churches in the second century went with the majority of the middle class in opposing the trend toward equality for women. By the year 200, the majority of Christian communities endorsed as canonical the "pseudo-Pauline" letter to Timothy. That letter, according to Pagels, stresses and exaggerates the antifeminist element in Paul's views: "Let a woman learn in silence in all submissiveness. I permit no woman to teach or have authority over men; she is to keep silent." She believes the letters to the Colossians and to the Ephesians, which order women to "be subject in everything to their husbands," do not express what she says were Paul's very favorable attitudes toward women, but also were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries.
Theologian Robert Cramer agrees that the "pseudo-Pauline" epistles were written to marginalize women, especially in the church and in marriage::
Since it is now widely concluded that the Pastoral Epistles were written around 115 AD, these words were written most likely about 50 years after Paul's martyrdom. Considering the similarity between 1 Corinthians 14:35 and 1 Timothy 2:11-12, conclusions that I and others continue to draw are:
1. that Paul wrote the bulk of what was in 1 Corinthians but that he did not write 1 Timothy, and
2. that around 115 AD, the writer of 1 Timothy or a group associated with him added the 1 Corinthians 14:33-36 pericope to the body of letters that later became 1 Corinthians.
In this scenario this would have been done in part to lend further authority to a later (or more culturally acceptable) teaching that marginalized women. [75]
Father Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, O.P., in the New Jerome Biblical Commentary, agrees that the verses not favorable to women were "post-Pauline interpolations":
1 Corinthians 14:34-35 are not a Corinthian slogan, as some have argued…, but a post-Pauline interpolation…. Not only is the appeal to the law (possibly Genesis 3:16) un-Pauline, but the verses contradict 1 Corinthians 11:5. The injunctions reflect the misogyny of 1 Timothy 2:11-14 and probably stem from the same circle. Some mss. place these verses after 40. [76]
Talmudic scholar Hyam Maccoby contends that the Paul as described in the Book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Additionally, the speeches of Paul, as recorded in Acts, have been argued to show a different turn of mind. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit.
On the other hand, according to Maccoby, there are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, but Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts. F.C.Baur (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany and founder of the so-called Tübingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the apostle to the Gentiles, was in violent opposition to the older disciples. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.
Maccoby theorizes that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributes the origins of Christian anti-Semitism to Paul and claims that Paul's view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects.[77]
Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University at Long Beach argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.[78] Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman of Agrippa."[79] Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in Romans, 16:11 where Paul writes, "greet Herodion, my kinsman." This is a minority view in the academic community.
Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson, who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus". [80] Howard Brenton's play Paul also takes a sceptical account as to his conversion.
[edit] See also
* Achaichus
* Pauline Epistles
* Authorship of the Pauline Epistles
* Christian mystics
* New Covenant
* Old Testament: Christian views of the Law
* Persecution of Christians in the New Testament
* Pauline Christianity
* Persecution of religion in ancient Rome
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Bauer lexicon; Acts 13:9, from "The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ: According to the Received Greek Text" (University Press, Cambridge 1876)
2. ^ Romans 11:13, Galatians 2:8
3. ^ "The Canon Debate," McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "For Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man (pontifex maximus!) who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of first-century Christianity. James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum. But Peter, as shown particularly by the Antioch episode in Gal 2, had both a care to hold firm to his Jewish heritage, which Paul lacked, and an openness to the demands of developing Christianity, which James lacked. John might have served as such a figure of the center holding together the extremes, but if the writings linked with his name are at all indicative of his own stance he was too much of an individualist to provide such a rallying point. Others could link the developing new religion more firmly to its founding events and to Jesus himself. But none of them, including the rest of the twelve, seem to have played any role of continuing significance for the whole sweep of Christianity—though James the brother of John might have proved an exception had he been spared." [Italics original]
4. ^ The Complete Gospels, Robert J. Miller ed., notes on Matthew 26:48: "The fact that Judas needs to use a sign indicates that Jesus was not known by face in Jerusalem." Presumably, at that time, Paul was in Jerusalem studying under the famous Pharisee Gamaliel.
5. ^ Acts 9:1-31, 22:1-22, 26:9-24
6. ^ Galatians 1:11–12
7. ^ Galatians 6:11, Romans 16:22, 1 Corinthians 16:21, Colossians 4:18, 2 Thessalonians 3:17, Philippians 1:19
8. ^ Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point [Galatians 6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thessalonians 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries… In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
9. ^ 2 Thessalonians 2:2; 3:17
10. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F.L. Lucas (Oxford) entry on St. Paul
11. ^ a b c Laymon, Charles M. The Interpreter's Eighteen-Volume Commentary on the Bible (Abingdon Press, Nashville 1871) ISBN 0687192994
12. ^ Walton, Steve (2000). Leadership and Lifestyle: The Portrait of Paul in the Miletus Speech and 1 Thessalonians. Cambridge University Press, 3. ISBN 0521780063.
13. ^ Hare, Douglas R. A. (1987), "Introduction", in Knocks, John, Chapters in a Life of Paul (Revised ed.), Mercer University Press, pp. x, ISBN 0865542813,
14. ^ Maccoby, Hyam (1998). The mythmaker, Barnes and Noble ed., Barnes and Noble, 4. ISBN 0760707871.
15. ^ Chapters 9:30, 11:25 and 22:3
16. ^ "Galilee villages launch campaign to attract Christian pilgrims", Haaretz - Israel News]
17. ^ Hengel, Martin; Anna Maria Schwemer (1997). Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years, trans. John Bowden, Westminster John Knox Press, 43. ISBN 0664257364.
18. ^ Galatians 2:1–10
19. ^ Barnett, Paul The Birth Of Christianity: The First Twenty Years (Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2005) ISBN 0802827810 p. 200
20. ^ Ogg, George, Chronology of the New Testament in Peake's Commentary on the Bible (Nelson) 1963)
21. ^ Barnett p. 83
22. ^ Acts 11:26
23. ^ [Gundry, R.H, A Survey of the New Testament 3rd edition (Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 1994)]
24. ^ [Kistemaker, S.J, Acts (New Testament Commentary; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990)]
25. ^ for example see the title in Acts 15 in the NIV
26. ^ see below
27. ^ a b c d White, L. Michael (2004). From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins, 148–149. ISBN 0060526556.
28. ^ Raymond E. Brown in Introduction to the New Testament argues that they are the same event but each from a different viewpoint with its own bias.
29. ^ Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit, F. F. Bruce, Paternoster 1980, p.151
30. ^ Ogg, George (ibid) p. 731
31. ^ Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament has the Western version of 15:2: "for Paul spoke maintaining firmly that they should stay as they were when converted; but those who had come from Jerusalem ordered them, Paul and Barnabas and certain others, to go up to Jerusalem to the apostles and elders that they might be judged before them about this question."
32. ^ For example, Augustine's Contra Faustum 32.13, see also Council of Jerusalem
33. ^ Joseph Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries), Yale University Press (December 2, 1998), ISBN 0300139829, chapter V
34. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers see section titled: "The Incident At Antioch"
35. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers: "On their arrival Peter, who up to this had eaten with the Gentiles, "withdrew and separated himself, fearing them who were of the circumcision," and by his example drew with him not only the other Jews, but even Barnabas, Paul's fellow-labourer."
36. ^ White, L. Michael (2004). From Jesus to Christianity. HarperSanFrancisco, 170. ISBN 0–06–052655–6.
37. ^ McGarvey: "Yet we see him in the case before us, circumcising Timothy with his own hand, and this 'on account of certain Jews who were in those quarters.'"
38. ^ Map of Paul's Second Missionary Journey
39. ^ Acts 18:17 NRSV
40. ^ Pauline Chronology: His Life and Missionary Work, from Catholic Resources by Felix Just, S.J.
41. ^ Map of Paul's Third Missionary Journey
42. ^ Expositor's Bible Commentary (Zondervan, 1978–1992), Commentary on Acts 21:27–29
43. ^ The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:5–6, translated by J.B. Lightfoot in Lightfoot, Joseph Barber (1890). The Apostolic Fathers: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. Macmillan, 274. OCLC 54248207.
44. ^ Brown, Raymond Edward; John Paul Meier (1983). Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 124. ISBN 0809125323.
45. ^ Lactanius, John Chrysostom, Sulpicius Severus all agree with Eusebius' claim that Peter and Paul died under Nero. Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II; John Chrysostom, Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4; Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29
46. '^ Hebrews authorship by Paul was questioned as early as Origen (circa. 200); it has no early attribution; the almost unanimous views of scholars is that it is not Pauline
47. ^ see Galatians 6:11, Romans 16:22, 1 Corinthians 16:21, Colossians 4:18, Thessalonians&verse=3:17&src=NIV 2 Thessalonians 3:17, Philemon 1:19
48. ^ Brown, R.E., The Churches the Apostles left behind p.48.
49. ^ Barrett, C.K. the Pastoral Epistles p.4ff.
50. ^ Mark 10:45
51. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian church (Oxford 1958) article on Justification
52. ^ Hanson A.T., Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology (SPCK 1974) p. 64
53. ^ Gathercole Simon, "What Did Paul Really Mean?" (Christianity Today, 2007)
54. ^ Christus Victor, Gustaf Aulen (SPCK 1931)
55. ^ Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919).
56. ^ Markham I.S., in Theological Liberalism: Creative and Critical ed. J'annine Jobling & Ian Markham
57. ^ Cur Deus Homo'; Dillistone (ibid.) p. 190 ff
58. ^ (ibid.) p. 195ff
59. ^ (ibid.) p. 102
60. ^ (see penal substitution
61. ^ (ibid.) p. 214
62. ^ R.E. Brown The Churches the Apostles left behind (Chapman 1984 p. 47f
63. ^ http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/strongs.pl?strongs=2699 Strong's G2699
64. ^ McGarvey on Acts 21: "It is evident, from the transaction before us, as observed above, that James and the brethren in Jerusalem regarded the offering of sacrifices as at least innocent; for they approved the course of the four Nazarites, and urged Paul to join with them in the service, though it required them to offer sacrifices, and even sin-offerings. They could not, indeed, very well avoid this opinion, since they admitted the continued authority of the Mosaic law. Though disagreeing with them as to the ground of their opinion, as in reference to the other customs, Paul evidently admitted the opinion itself, for he adopted their advice, and paid the expense of the sacrifices which the four Nazarites offered"; Catholic Encyclopedia: Nazarite: "From Acts (21:23-24) we learn that the early Jewish Christians occasionally took the temporary Nazarite vow, and it is probable that the vow of St. Paul mentioned in Acts 18:18, was of a similar nature, although the shaving of his head in Cenchræ, outside of Palestine, was not in conformity with the rules laid down in the sixth chapter of Numbers, nor with the interpretation of them by the Rabbinical schools of that period. (See Eaton in Hastings, Dict. of the Bible, s. v. Nazarites.) If we are to believe the legend of Hegesippus quoted by Eusebius ("Hist. Eccl.", II, xxiii), St. James the Less, Bishop of Jerusalem, was a Nazarite, and performed with rigorous exactness all the ascetic practices enjoined by that rule of life."
65. ^ McGarvey: "Yet we see him in the case before us, circumcising Timothy with his own hand, and this "on account of certain Jews who were in those quarters."
66. ^ James D. G. Dunn, Jesus, Paul and the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians, Westminster/John Knox Press, 1990, chapter 8: "Works of the Law and the Curse of the Law"
67. ^ [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch21.html Commentary on Acts of the Apostles |Christian Classics Ethereal Library
68. ^ [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch16.html Commentary on Acts of the Apostles |Christian Classics Ethereal Library
69. ^ "Judaizers", 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia
70. ^ Paul and Palestinian Judaism 1977 SCM Press ISBN 0–8006–1899–8
71. ^ J.D.G. Dunn's Manson Memorial Lecture (4.11.1982): 'The New Perspective on Paul' BJRL 65(1983), 95–122.
72. ^ New Perspectives on Paul
73. ^ Rowlands, Christopher Christian Origins (SPCK 1985) p.113
74. ^ Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Gospels. Vintage Publishers, 1989, p.62
75. ^ Cramer, Robert N. "Women's roles in early church — real history, revisionism, and making things right." Online: http://www.bibletexts.com/qa/qa078.htm#1 Accessed October 5, 2007
76. ^ New Jerome Biblical Commentary, edited by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J, and Roland E. Murphy, O.Carm., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990, pages 811-812)
77. ^ Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. HarperCollins, 1987. Ch. 1
78. ^ See Paul as Herodian, JHC 3/1 (Spring, 1996), 110-122. http://depts.drew.edu/jhc/eisenman.html
79. ^ Antiquities, Book XX, Chapter 9:4. http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-20.htm
80. ^ The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being his Autobiography, Correspondence, Reports, Messages, Addresses, and Other Writings, Official and Private. Published by the Order of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, from the Original Manuscripts, Deposited in the Department of State, With Explanatory Nites, Tables of Contents, and a Copious Index to Each Volume, as well as a General Index to the Whole, by the Editor H. A. Washington. Vol. VII. Published by Taylor Maury, Washington, D.C., 1854.
[edit] References
* Aulén, Gustaf, Christus Victor (SPCK 1931)
* Brown Raymond E. The Church the Apostles left behind(Chapman 1984)
* Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0–385–24767–2.
* Bruce, F.F., Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (ISBN 0–8028–4778–1)
* Bruce, F.F. 'Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?' Bulletin John Rylands Library 58 (1976) 283–305
* Conzelmann, Hans, the Acts of the Apostles — a Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Fortress 1987)
* Davies, W. D. (1962), "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul", in Black, Matthew, Peake's Commentary on the Bible, London: T. Nelson, ISBN 0840750196
* Davies, W. D. (1970). Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology, third edition, S.P.C.K.. ISBN 0281024499.
* Dunn, James D.G., 1990, Jesus, Paul and the Law Louisville,KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664250955
* Hanson, Anthony Tyrrell (1974). Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 0802834523.
* Irenaeus, Against Heresies, i.26.2
* Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0–06–015582–5.
* MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
* Ogg, George (1962), "Chronology of the New Testament", in Black, Matthew, Peake's Commentary on the Bible, London: T. Nelson, ISBN 0840750196
* Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0814658458
* Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5
* Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN 0814651739
* Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919)
* John Ruef, Paul's First letter to Corinth (Penguin 1971)
* Sanders, E.P., Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977)
* Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World (Harvard University Press 1986).
* Segal, Alan F., Paul, the Convert, (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1.
[edit] External links
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Paul of Tarsus
* Saint Paul of Tarsus: the true story
* Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus
* Encyclopædia Britannica: Paul
* Paul's mission and letters From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians.
* St Paul's tomb unearthed in Rome from BBC News (2006–12–08)
* The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus Dr. Riemer Faber
* The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28
* Vatican reports discovery of St.Paul's tomb from WorldNetDaily.com (February 18, 2005). cf. Vatican Museum
* Vatican Unearths Apparent Tomb of Paul of Tarsus
* 2008 saint paul year
* Documentary film on Apostle Paul
* [1]
Saints portal
[show]
v • d • e
First Journey of Paul the Apostle
1. Antioch • 2. Seleucia • 3. Cyprus • 3a.Salamis • 3b. Paphos • 4. Perge • 5.Antioch in Pisidia •
6. Konya (Iconium) • 7. Derbe • 8. Lystra • 9. Antalya • 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey}
[show]
v • d • e
Second Journey of Paul the Apostle
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Third Journey of Paul the Apostle
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11. Chios • 12. Samos • 13. Miletus • 14. Cos • 15. Rhodes 16. Patara • 17. Tyre • 18. Ptolemais • 19. Caesarea • 20. Jerusalem
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Persondata
NAME Paul the Apostle
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Paul of Tarsus; Paul, Saint; Saul
SHORT DESCRIPTION Apostle who spread Christianity
DATE OF BIRTH 10
PLACE OF BIRTH Tarsus, Turkey
DATE OF DEATH 67
PLACE OF DEATH Rome, Italy
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle"
Categories: 67 deaths | Christian martyrs of the Roman era | Christian religious leaders | Jewish Christians | Converts from Judaism to Christianity | Judeo-Christian topics | Letter writers | New Testament people | People executed by decapitation | Prophets in Christianity | Religious writers | Christian writers | Roman era Jews | Saints from the Holy Land | Theologians | Jews and Judaism-related controversies | Biblical apostles | Apostle Paul | 1st century Romans | 1st century writers
Hebrew" redirects here. For other uses, see Hebrew (disambiguation).
Hebrew (עִבְרִית, ‘Ivrit) is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family, and spoken by more than seven million people in Israel and used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world. In Israel, it is the de facto language of the state and the people, as well as being one of the two official languages (together with Arabic), and it is spoken by the majority of the population. Hebrew is also spoken as a mother tongue by the Samaritans, though today fewer than a thousand Samaritans remain. As a foreign language it is studied mostly by Jews and students of Judaism and Israel, archeologists and linguists specializing in the Middle East and its civilisations and by theologians.
The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ibriy" which in turn is based upon the root "`abar" (עבּר) meaning "to cross over". The related name Eber, occurs in Genesis 10:21 and means "the one who traverses". In the Bible "Hebrew" is called יהודית because Judea was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation, late 8th century(Is 36, 2Kings 18).
The core of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) is written in Classical Hebrew, and much of its present form is specifically the dialect of Biblical Hebrew that scholars believe flourished around the 6th century BC, around the time of the Babylonian exile. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Ha-Qodesh (לשון הקודש), "The Holy Language", since ancient times.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
o 1.1 Origins
o 1.2 Gezer calendar and other archaic inscriptions
o 1.3 Classical Hebrew
o 1.4 Mishnah and Talmud
o 1.5 Medieval Hebrew
o 1.6 Liturgical use
* 2 Modern Hebrew
o 2.1 Development
o 2.2 Reactions
o 2.3 Russia and the Soviet Union
+ 2.3.1 Birobidzhan
o 2.4 Modern Israeli Hebrew
+ 2.4.1 Classification
+ 2.4.2 Regional dialects
* 3 Aramaic
o 3.1 Displacement
o 3.2 Dialects
* 4 Other coexisting languages
* 5 Phonology
o 5.1 Vowels
+ 5.1.1 Shva
+ 5.1.2 One-letter words
o 5.2 Consonants
+ 5.2.1 Historical sound changes
o 5.3 Stress
* 6 Grammar
* 7 Writing system
o 7.1 Vowel signs
o 7.2 Consonant letters
o 7.3 Mater lectionis
o 7.4 Indicating stress
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 External links
o 11.1 Hebrew Learning
o 11.2 General
o 11.3 Dictionaries
o 11.4 History of the Hebrew language
o 11.5 Complete texts in Hebrew
[edit] History
As a language, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. Hebrew (Israel) and Moabite (Jordan) are Southern Canaanite while Phoenician (Lebanon) is Northern Canaanite. Canaanite is closely related to Aramaic and to a lesser extent South-Central Arabic. Whereas other Canaanite languages and dialects have become extinct, Hebrew has survived. Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in Israel from the 10th century BC until the Babylonian exile. After that it was gradually replaced by Aramaic, the cosmopolitan language of the Jewish elite[1] (see below, Aramaic displacing Hebrew as a spoken language), though some scholars believe that there were still some native speakers of Hebrew until shortly before the Byzantine era. From the beginning of the 1st millennium Hebrew continued in use as a religious and literary language until the 19th century, when it was revived as a spoken language.[2]
Most linguists agree that after the 6th century BC, when the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the ancient Kingdom of Judah, destroying Jerusalem and exiling its population to Babylon and after Cyrus The Great, the King of Kings or Great King of Persia, gave them permission to return, Biblical Hebrew came to be replaced in daily use by new dialects of Hebrew and a local version of Aramaic. After the 2nd century AD when the Roman Empire exiled most of the Jewish population of Jerusalem following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Hebrew gradually ceased to be a spoken language, but remained a major literary language. Letters, contracts, commerce, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry, and laws were written in Hebrew, which adapted by borrowing and inventing terms.
Hebrew persevered along the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses (poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts, in addition to liturgy). This meant not only that well-educated Jews in all parts of the world could correspond in a mutually intelligible language, and that books and legal documents published or written in any part of the world could be read by Jews in all other parts, but that an educated Jew could travel and converse with Jews in distant places, just as priests and other educated Christians could once converse in Latin. It has been 'revived' several times as a literary language, and most significantly by the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th century. Near the end of that century the Jewish activist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, who was no scholar or linguist, owing to the ideology of the national revival (Hibbat Tziyon, later Zionism) began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of the Second Aliyah, it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time. Those languages were Jewish dialects such as Ladino (also called Judezmo), Yiddish and Judeo-Arabic, or local languages spoken in the Jewish diaspora such as Russian, Persian, and Arabic.
The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as neologisms from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda) and Aramaic. Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French. Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of the newly declared State of Israel. English and Arabic still remain formal languages in Israel to this day.
[edit] Origins
Hebrew is a Semitic language, and as such a member of the larger Afro-Asiatic phylum.
Within Semitic, the Northwest Semitic languages formed around the 3rd millennium BC, grouped with the Arabic languages as Central Semitic. The Canaanite languages are a group within Northwest Semitic, emerging in the 2nd millennium BC in the Levant, gradually separating from Aramaic and Ugaritic.
Within the Canaanite group, Hebrew belongs to the sub-group also containing Edomite, Ammonite and Moabite. Another Canaanite sub-group contains Phoenician and its descendant Punic.
[edit] Gezer calendar and other archaic inscriptions
The first written evidence of distinctive Hebrew, the Gezer calendar, dates back to the 10th century BC at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, the traditional time of the reign of David and Solomon. Classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks and Etruscans later became the Roman script. The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it.
The Shebna lintel, from the tomb of a royal steward found in Siloam, dates to the 7th century BC.
The Shebna lintel, from the tomb of a royal steward found in Siloam, dates to the 7th century BC.
Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example Protosinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam Inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraka found near Lachish which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian captivity of 586 BC.
[edit] Classical Hebrew
In its widest sense, Classical Hebrew means the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between the 10th century BC and the turn of the 4th century AD.[3] It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects. The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them.
* Archaic Biblical Hebrew from the 10th to the 6th century BC, corresponding to the Monarchic Period until the Babylonian Exile and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible (Tanach), notably the Song of Moses (Exodus 15) and the Song of Deborah (Judges 5). Also called Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew. It was written in a form of the Canaanite script. (A script descended from this is still used by the Samaritans, see Samaritan Hebrew language.)
* Biblical Hebrew around the 6th century BC, corresponding to the Babylonian Exile and represented by the bulk of the Hebrew Bible that attains much of its present form around this time. Also called Classical Biblical Hebrew (or Classical Hebrew in the narrowest sense).
* Late Biblical Hebrew, from the 6th to the 4th century BC, that corresponds to the Persian Period and is represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible, notably the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Basically similar to Classical Biblical Hebrew, apart from a few foreign words adopted for mainly governmental terms, and some syntactical innovations such as the use of the particle shel (of, belonging to). It adopted the Imperial Aramaic script.
* Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD, corresponding to the Hellenistic and Roman Periods before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the Qumran Scrolls that form most (but not all) of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Commonly abbreviated as DSS Hebrew, also called Qumran Hebrew. The Imperial Aramaic script of the earlier scrolls in the 3rd century BC evolved into the Hebrew square script of the later scrolls in the 1st century AD, also known as ketav Ashuri (Assyrian script), still in use today.
* Mishnaic Hebrew from the 1st to the 3rd or 4th century AD, corresponding to the Roman Period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the bulk of the Mishnah and Tosefta within the Talmud and by the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the Bar Kokhba Letters and the Copper Scroll. Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew.
Sometimes the above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into "Biblical Hebrew" (including several dialects from the tenth century BC to 2nd century BC and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and "Mishnaic Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD and extant in certain other Dead Sea Scrolls).[4] However today, most Hebrew linguists classify Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew as a set of dialects evolving out of Late Biblical Hebrew and into Mishnaic Hebrew, thus including elements from both but remaining distinct from either.[5] By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century AD, Classical Hebrew ceases as a spoken language, roughly a century after the publication of the Mishnah, apparently declining since the aftermath of the catastrophic Bar Kokhba War around 135 AD.
[edit] Mishnah and Talmud
Main article: Mishnaic Hebrew
The term generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud תלמוד, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnaic Hebrew I), which was a spoken language, and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a literary language.
The earlier section of the Talmud is the Mishnah משנה that was published around 200 CE and was written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect. The dialect is also found in certain Dead Sea Scrolls. Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of the dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel.
A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the halachic Midrashim (Sifra, Sifre, Mechilta etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the Tosefta תוספתא. The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is Baraitot. The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew.
About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language. The later section of the Talmud, the Gemara גמרא, generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amoraic Hebrew, which sometimes occurs in the text of the Gemara.
[edit] Medieval Hebrew
Main article: Medieval Hebrew
Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing (Joshua 1:1).
Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing (Joshua 1:1).
After the Talmud, various regional literary dialects of Medieval Hebrew evolved. The most important is Tiberian Hebrew or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of Tiberias in Galilee that became the standard for vocalizing the Hebrew Bible and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew. This Tiberian Hebrew from the 7th to 10th century AD is sometimes called "Biblical Hebrew" because it is used to pronounce the Hebrew Bible; however properly it should be distinguished from the historical Biblical Hebrew of the 6th century BC, whose original pronunciation must be reconstructed.
Tiberian Hebrew incorporates the remarkable scholarship of the Masoretes (from masoret meaning "tradition"), who added vowel points and grammar points to the Hebrew letters to preserve much earlier features of Hebrew, for use in chanting the Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes inherited a biblical text whose letters were considered too sacred to be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The Syriac script, precursor to the Arabic script, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The Aleppo Codex, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century likely in Tiberias and survives to this day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence.
In the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic. Important Hebrew grammarians were Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah and later (in Provence) David Kimhi. A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as Dunash ben Labrat, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi and the two Ibn Ezras, in a "purified" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative metres. This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets.
The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Classical Greek and Medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. This is used in the translations made by the Ibn Tibbon family. (Original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic.)
Another important influence was Maimonides, who developed a simple style based on Mishnaic Hebrew for use in his law code, the Mishneh Torah. Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud.
[edit] Liturgical use
Hebrew has always been used as the language of prayer and study, and the following pronunciation systems are found.
Ashkenazi Hebrew, originating in Central and Eastern Europe, is still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad, particularly in the Haredi and other Orthodox communities. It was influenced by the Yiddish language.
Sephardi Hebrew is the traditional pronunciation of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews and Sephardi Jews in the countries of the former Ottoman Empire. This pronunciation, in the form used by the Jerusalem Sephardic community, is the basis of the Hebrew phonology of Israeli native speakers. It was influenced by the Ladino language.
Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew is actually a collection of dialects spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the Arab and Islamic world. It was possibly influenced by the Aramaic and Arabic languages, and in some cases by Sephardi Hebrew, although some linguists maintain that it is the direct heir of Biblical Hebrew and thus represents the true dialect of Hebrew. The same claim is sometimes made for Yemenite Hebrew or Temanit, which differs from other Mizrahi dialects by having a radically different vowel system.
These pronunciations are still used in synagogue ritual and religious study, in Israel and elsewhere, mostly by people who are not native speakers of Hebrew, though some traditionalist Israelis are bi-dialectal.
Many synagogues in the diaspora, even though Ashkenazi by rite and by ethnic composition, have adopted the "Sephardic" pronunciation in deference to Israeli Hebrew. However, in many British and American schools and synagogues, this pronunciation retains several elements of its Ashkenazi substrate, especially the distinction between tsere and segol.
[edit] Modern Hebrew
Main article: Revival of the Hebrew language
[edit] Development
In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition as pronounced in Jerusalem revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously Israeli Hebrew, Modern Israeli Hebrew, Modern Hebrew, New Hebrew, Israeli Standard Hebrew, Standard Hebrew, and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits many features of Sephardic Hebrew from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic.
Eliezer Ben-Yehuda
Eliezer Ben-Yehuda
The literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, Hameassef (The Gatherer), was published by Maskilim litterati in Königsberg from 1783 onwards[6]. In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g. HaMagid, founded in Lyck, Prussia, in 1856) multiplied. Prominent poets were Chaim Nachman Bialik and Shaul Tchernichovsky; there were also novels written in the language.
The revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue was initiated by the efforts of Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858-1922) (אליעזר בן–יהודה). He joined the Jewish national movement and in 1881 immigrated to Palestine, then a part of the Ottoman Empire. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora "shtetl" lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the literary and liturgical language into everyday spoken language.
However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in Eastern Europe by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like Achad Ha-Am and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the vernacularization activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904-1914 "second aliyah" that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the British Mandate of Palestine recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. A constructed modern language with a truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in phonology, was to take its place among the current languages of the nations.
[edit] Reactions
While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous[7] (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss common everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the Palestine Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. It has been said that Hebrew unified the new immigrants coming to Mandate Palestine, creating a common language and culture.[citation needed] A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. Later it became the Academy of the Hebrew Language, an organization that exists today. The results of his and the Committee's work were published in a dictionary (The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew). Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine. At the time, members of the Old Yishuv and a very few Chasidic sects, most notably those under the auspices of Satmar, refused to speak Hebrew and only spoke Yiddish. However, while this ideological stance persists in certain quarters, almost all members of these groups have learned modern Hebrew in order to interact with outsiders.
[edit] Russia and the Soviet Union
Main articles: History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union and Yevsektsiya
Russian has separate terms for Ancient Hebrew (Древнееврейский язык, "ancient Jewish language") and Modern Hebrew (Иврит (Ivrit), directly borrowed from the Hebrew name).
The Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew "reactionary" since it was associated with both Judaism and Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the Narkompros (Commissariat of Education) as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to secularize education (the language itself didn't cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes[8]). The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being the spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language.[9] Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests in the West,[10] teachers and students who attempted to study the Hebrew language were pilloried and sentenced for "counter revolutionary" and later for "anti-Soviet" activities.[citation needed] Later in the 1980s years in the USSR, Hebrew studies reappeared due to people struggling for permission to go to Israel (refuseniks). Several of the teachers were imprisoned, for example, Ephraim Kholmyansky,Yevgeny Korostyshevsky and others responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many cities of USSR.
[edit] Birobidzhan
Birobidzhan Jewish National University works in cooperation with the local Jewish community of Birobidzhan. The university is unique in the Russian Far East. The basis of the training course is study of the Hebrew language, history and classic Jewish texts.[11] In recent years, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast has grown interested in its Jewish roots. Students study Hebrew and Yiddish at a Jewish school and Birobidzhan Jewish National University. In 1989, the Jewish center founded its Sunday school, where children study Yiddish, learn folk Jewish dance, and learn about the history of Israel. The Israeli government helps fund the program.[12] Chief Rabbi Mordechai Scheiner has commented the progress at School No. 2, Birobidjan's Jewish public school with 670 students, 30 percent of whom are Jewish. Pupils learn about Jewish history, and the Hebrew and Yiddish languages.[13]
[edit] Modern Israeli Hebrew
Standard Hebrew, as developed by Eliezer Ben Yehuda, was based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation. However, the earliest speakers of Modern Hebrew had Yiddish as their native tongue and often brought into Hebrew idioms and literal translations from Yiddish. Similarly, the language as spoken in Israel has adapted to Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in the following respects:
* the elimination of pharyngeal articulation in the letters chet and ayin
* the conversion of /r/ from an alveolar flap ([ɾ]) to a voiced uvular fricative ([ʁ]) or trill ([ʀ]) (see Guttural R)
* the pronunciation (by many speakers) of tzere as [eɪ] in some contexts (sifrey and teysha instead of Sephardic sifré and tésha' )
* the elimination of vocal schwa (zman instead of Sephardic zĕman)
* some of the letter names (yud and kuf instead of Sephardic yod and qof)
* in popular speech, penultimate stress in proper names (Dvóra instead of Dĕvorá; Yehúda instead of Yĕhudá)
* similarly, penultimate stress in nouns or verbs with a second or third person plural suffix (katávtem "you wrote" instead of kĕtavtém; shalom aléykhem (greeting) instead of shalom alekhém).[14]
[edit] Classification
Although the majority of scholars see Modern Hebrew as a genuine continuation of Biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew, while conceding that it has acquired some European vocabulary and syntactical features, in much the same way as Modern Standard Arabic (or even more so, dialects such as Moroccan Arabic), two dissenting views are as follows:
* Paul Wexler[15] claims that modern Hebrew is not a Semitic language at all, but a dialect of "Judaeo-Sorbian". He argues that the underlying structure of the language is Slavic, but "re-lexified" to absorb much of the vocabulary and inflexional system of Hebrew in much the same way as a creole.
* Ghil'ad Zuckermann[16] [17] compromises between Wexler and the majority view: according to him, "Israeli" (his term for Israeli Hebrew) is a Semito-European hybrid language, which is the continuation not only of literary Hebrew but also of Yiddish, as well as Polish, Russian, German, English, Ladino, Arabic and other languages spoken by Hebrew revivalists.[18] Zuckermann's multi-parental hybridization model is based on two main principles: the Congruence Principle and the Founder Principle. According to the Congruence Principle, the more contributing languages a linguistic feature exists in, the more likely it is to persist in the target language.[19] Based on feature pool[20] statistics and recognizing simultaneous multiple sources, the Congruence Principle is in contrast to the family tree tool in historical linguistics. The Congruence Principle challenges Wexler's relexification model. The Founder Principle underlines the impact of the founder population on the emerging language. Thus, "Yiddish is a primary contributor to Israeli Hebrew because it was the mother tongue of the vast majority of revivalists and first pioneers in Eretz Yisrael at the crucial period of the beginning of Israeli Hebrew".[21] According to Zuckermann, although the revivalists wished to speak Hebrew, with Semitic grammar and pronunciation, they could not avoid the Ashkenazi mindset arising from their European background. He argues that their attempt to deny their European roots, negate diasporism and avoid hybridity (as reflected in Yiddish) failed. "Had the revivalists been Arabic-speaking Jews (e.g. from Morocco), Israeli Hebrew would have been a totally different language – both genetically and typologically, much more Semitic. The impact of the founder population on Israeli Hebrew is incomparable with that of later immigrants."[22] The Founder Principle challenges the traditional revival view, according to which Israeli Hebrew is Hebrew revived and thus Afro-Asiatic (Semitic).
So far, neither view has gained significant acceptance among mainstream linguists. However, some linguists, for example American Yiddish scholar Dovid Katz, have employed Zuckermann's glottonym "Israeli" and accept his notion of hybridity. Few would dispute that Hebrew has acquired some European features as a result of having been learned by immigrants as a second language at a crucial formative stage. The identity of the European substrate/adstrate has varied: in the time of the Mandate and the early State, the principal contributor was Yiddish, during the large scale immigrations of Mizrahi Jews during the 1950-60s, Arabic, particularly the Yemenite and North African dialects, was a large contributor, while today it is largely Russian and American English.
[edit] Regional dialects
According to Ethnologue, the currently spoken dialects of Hebrew are "Standard Hebrew (General Israeli, Europeanized Hebrew)" and "Oriental Hebrew (Arabized Hebrew, Yemenite Hebrew)". These refer to two varieties used for actual communication by native speakers in Israel; they differ mainly in pronunciation, and hardly in any other way.
Immigrants to Israel are encouraged to adopt "Standard Hebrew" as their daily language. Phonologically, this "dialect" may most accurately be described as an amalgam of pronunciations preserving Sephardic vowel sounds and some Ashkenazic consonant sounds with Yiddish-style influence, its recurring feature being simplification of differences among a wide array of pronunciations. This simplifying tendency also accounts for the collapse of the Ashkenazic [t] and [s] allophones of ת (/t/) into the single phone [t]. Most Sephardic and Mizrahi dialects share this feature, though some (such as those of Iraq and Yemen) differentiate between these two pronunciations as /t/ and /θ/. Within Israel, however, the pronunciation of Hebrew more often reflects the diasporic origin of the individual speaker, rather than the specific recommendations of the Academy. For this reason, over half the population pronounces ר as [ʀ] (a uvular trill, as in Yiddish and French) or as [ʁ] (a voiced uvular fricative, as in Standard German), rather than as [r], an alveolar trill, as in Spanish and Italian. The pronunciation of this phoneme is often used among Israelis as a shibboleth or determinant when ascertaining the national origin of perceived foreigners.
There are mixed views on the status of the two dialects. On the one hand, prominent Israelis of Sephardic or Oriental origin are admired for the purity of their speech and Yemenite Jews are often employed as newsreaders. On the other hand, the speech of middle-class Ashkenazim is regarded as having a certain Central European sophistication, and many speakers of Mizrahi origin have moved nearer to this version of Standard Hebrew, in some cases even adopting the uvular resh.
It was formerly the case that the inhabitants of the north of Israel pronounced beth rafe (בי"ת רפה, bet without dagesh, literally loose beth: ב) as /b/ instead of /v/, in accordance with the conservative Sephardic pronunciation[citation needed]. This was regarded as rustic and has since disappeared. It is said that one can tell an inhabitant of Jerusalem by the pronunciation of the word for two hundred as "ma'atayim" (מאתיים, as distinct from "matayim", as heard elsewhere in the country). Today, Israeli Hebrew is virtually uniform, the only noticeable variation being along ethnic lines. It is widely felt that these differences, too, have been disappearing among the younger generation.
[edit] Aramaic
Main article: Judeo-Aramaic language
Aramaic is a North-West Semitic language, like Canaanite. Its name derives either from "Aram Naharayim" in Upper Mesopotamia or from "Aram", an ancient name for Syria. Various dialects of Aramaic coevolved with Hebrew throughout much of its history. The words in Greek and Hebrew at the time corresponding to the word "Hebrew" (Εβραις, Εβραιστι, עברית יהודית) are distinguished from Aramaic συριστι συριακη.[23]
One of the languages possibly used by Jesus and the Neo-Babylonian Empire was a dialect of Aramaic. The Persian Empire that captured Babylonia a few decades later adopted Imperial Aramaic as the official international language of the Persian Empire. The Israelite population, who had been exiled to Babylon from Jerusalem and its surrounding region of Judah, were allowed to return to Jerusalem to establish a Persian province, usually called Judea. Thus Aramaic became the administrative language for Judea when dealing with the rest of Persian Empire.
The Aramaic script also evolved from the Paleo-Semitic script, but they diverged significantly. By the 1st century CE, the Aramaic script developed into the distinctive Hebrew square script (also known as Assyrian Script, Ktav Ashuri), extant in the Dead Sea Scrolls and similar to the script still in use today.
[edit] Displacement
By the early half of the 20th century, most scholars followed Geiger and Dalman in thinking that Aramaic became a spoken language in the land of Israel by the start of Israel's Hellenistic Period in the 4th century BCE, and that as a corollary Hebrew ceased to function as a spoken language around the same time. Segal, Klausner, and Ben Yehuda are notable exceptions to this view. During the latter half of the 20th century, accumulating archaeological evidence and especially linguistic analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls has qualified or challenged the previous consensus. Alongside Aramaic, Hebrew appears to have survived as a spoken language, since the Qumran evidence indicates that Hebrew texts were comprehensible to the rank-and-file. Some further evidence for this contention has been found in the Christian Bible story of Paul speaking to a crowd of Jews têi hebraïdi dialéktôi[24] lit.'in the Hebrew dialect'. A commonly proposed translation for this Greek passage is 'in the Aramaic vernacular of Palestine' [25]. Such a translation ignores, of course, the fact that Aramaic has a standard word in Greek συριστι/συριακη (cf. LXX Job 42:17ff, and Dan 2:4.), it is really only based on place names that are called Hebrew and that had an Aramaizing etymology. In a groundbreaking article Grintz suggested that Hebrew, rather than Aramaic, lay behind the composition of the Gospel of Matthew[26]. Grintz dates the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language to the end of the Roman Period. Hebrew nonetheless continued on as a literary language down through Byzantine Period from the 4th century CE.
Further information: Hebrew of Jesus
The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew remain hotly debated. A trilingual scenario has been proposed for the land of Israel. Hebrew functioned as the local mother tongue, Aramaic functioned as the international language with the rest of the Mideast, and eventually Greek functioned as another international language with the eastern areas of the Roman Empire. Communities of Jews (and non-Jews) are known, who immigrated to Judea from these other lands and continued to speak Aramaic or Greek.
Many Hebrew linguists postulate the survival of Hebrew as a spoken language until the Byzantine Period, but some historians do not accept this. The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls distinguishes the Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the various dialects of Biblical Hebrew out of which it evolved: "This book presents the specific features of DSS Hebrew, emphasizing deviations from classical BH."[27] The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church which once said, in 1958 in its first edition, that Hebrew "ceased to be a spoken language around the fourth century BC", now says, in its 1997 (third) edition, that Hebrew "continued to be used as a spoken and written language in the New Testament period".[28] An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew says, "It is generally believed that the Dead Sea Scrolls, specifically the Copper Scroll and also the Bar Kokhba letters, have furnished clear evidence of the popular character of MH [Mishnaic Hebrew]."[29] And so on.[3] It is widespread among Israeli scholars to treat Hebrew as a spoken language as a feature of Judea's Roman Period.
[edit] Dialects
The international language of Aramaic radiated into various regional dialects. In and around Judea, various dialects of Old Western Aramaic emerged, including the Jewish dialect of Old Judean Aramaic during the Roman Period. Josephus Flavius initially drafted his account of The Jewish War in Old Judean Aramaic but later recast it into Koine Greek to publish it for the Roman imperial court. Unfortunately Josephus's Aramaic version has not survived.
Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE, the Jews gradually began to disperse from Jerusalem to foreign countries, especially after the Bar Kokhba War in 135 CE when the Romans turned Jerusalem into a pagan city named Aelia Capitolina. The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme.
After the Bar Kokhba War in the 2nd century CE, the Jewish Palestinian Aramaic dialect emerged from obscurity out of the vicinity of Galilee to form one of the main dialects in the Western branch of Middle Aramaic. The Jerusalem Talmud (by the 5th century) used this Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, as did the Midrash Rabba (6th to 12th century). This dialect probably influenced the pronunciation of the 8th-century Tiberian Hebrew that vocalizes the Hebrew Bible.
Meanwhile over in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud (by the 7th century) used Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, a Jewish dialect in the Eastern branch of Middle Aramaic. For centuries Jewish Babylonian remained the spoken language of Mesopotamian Jews and the Lishana Deni. In the area of Kurdistan, there is a modern Aramaic dialect descending from it that is still spoken by a few thousand Jews (and non-Jews), though it has largely given way to Arabic.
Hebrew continues to strongly influence all these various Jewish dialects of Aramaic.
[edit] Other coexisting languages
Main article: Jewish languages
Besides Jewish dialects of Aramaic, other languages are highly influenced by Hebrew, such as Yiddish, Ladino, Karaite and Judeo-Arabic. Although none is completely derived from Hebrew, they all make extensive use of Hebrew loanwords.
The revival of Hebrew is often cited by proponents of international auxiliary languages as the best proof that languages long dead, with small communities, or modified or created artificially can become living languages used by a large number of people.
[edit] Phonology
Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See Help:IPA for a pronunciation key.
Main article: Hebrew phonology
Hebrew has two kinds of stress: on the last syllable (milra‘) and on the penultimate syllable (the one preceding the last, mil‘el). The former is more frequent. Specific rules connect the location of the stress with the length of the vowels in the last syllable. However, due to the fact that Israeli Hebrew does not distinguish between long and short vowels, these rules are not evident in everyday speech. They usually cannot be inferred from written text either, since usually vowels are not marked. The rules that specify the vowel length are different for verbs and nouns, which influences the stress; thus the mil‘el-stressed ókhel (="food") and milra‘-stressed okhèl (="eats", masculine) differ only in the length of the vowels (and are written identically if vowels are not marked). Little ambiguity exists, however, due to nouns and verbs having incompatible roles in normal sentences. This is also true in English, for example, with the English word "conduct" in its nominal and verbal forms.
[edit] Vowels
Main article: Niqqud
The vowel phonemes of Modern Israeli Hebrew
The Hebrew word for vowels is tnu'ot (תְּנוּעוֹת). The orthographic representations for these vowels are called Niqqud. Israeli Hebrew has 5 vowel phonemes, represented by the following Niqqud-signs:
phoneme pronunciation in
Modern Hebrew approximate pronunciation
in English othographic representation
"long" * "short" * "very short" / "interrupted" *
/a/ [a] (as in "spa") kamats ( ָ ) patach ( ַ ) chataf patach ( ֲ )
/e/ [ɛ̝] or [e̞] (as in "bet") tsere male ( ֵי ) or tsere chaser ( ֵ ) segol ( ֶ ) chataf segol ( ֱ ), sometimes shva ( ְ )
/i/ [i] (as in "ski") khirik male ( ִי ) khirik chaser ( ִ )
/o/ [ɔ̝] or [o̞] (as in "gore") kholam male ( וֹ ) or kholam chaser ( ֹ ) kamatz katan ( ָ ) chataf kamatz ( ֳ )
/u/ [u] (as in "flu" but with no diphthongization) shuruk (וּ) kubuts ( ֻ )
* The severalfold orthographic representation of each phoneme attests to the broader phonemic range of vowels in earlier forms of Hebrew. Some linguists still regard the Hebrew grammatical entity of Shva na—marked as Shva (ְ)—as representing a sixth phoneme, /ə/.
In Biblical Hebrew, each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (khataf). However, there is no audible distinction between the three in modern Israeli Hebrew, except that tsere is often pronounced [eɪ] as in Ashkenazi Hebrew.
[edit] Shva
The Niqqud sign "Shva" represents four grammatical entities: resting (nakh / נָח), moving (na' / נָע), floating (merahef / מְרַחֵף) and "bleating" or "bellowing" ('ge'iya' / גְּעִיָּה). In earlier forms of Hebrew, these entities were phonologically and phonetically distinguishable. However, in Modern Hebrew these distinctions are not observed. For example, the (first) Shva Nach in the word קִמַּטְתְ (fem. you crumpled) is usually pronounced [ə] (or [ɛ]) ([ki'matɛt]) even though it should be mute, whereas the Shva Na in זְמַן (time), which theoretically should be pronounced, is usually mute ([zman]). Sometimes the shva is pronounced like a tsere when accented, as in the prefix "ve" meaning "and".
[edit] One-letter words
One-letter words are written attached to the following word. Such items include: the definite article ha (/ha/) (="the"); prepositions be (/bə/) (="in"), mi (/mi/) (="from"), le (/lə/) (="to"); conjunctions she (/ʃe/) (="that"), ke (/kə/) (="as", "like"), ve (/və/) (="and"). The vowel that follows the letter thus attached depends in general on the beginning of the next word and the presence of a definite article which may be swallowed by the one-letter word.
The rules determining the vowels to follow these prepositions are complicated and vary with the formality of speech. In most cases they are followed by a moving schwa, and for that reason they are pronounced as be and le. In more formal speech, if a preposition is put before a word which begins with a moving shva, then the preposition takes the vowel /i/ (and the initial consonant is weakened), but in colloquial speech these changes often do not occur. For example, colloquial be-kfar (="in a village") corresponds to the more formal bi-khfar. If l or b are followed by the definite article ha, their vowel changes to /a/. Thus *be-ha-matos becomes ba-matos (="in the plane"). However it does not happen to mé (the form of "min" or "mi-" used before the letter "he"), therefore mé-ha-matos is a valid form, which means "from the airplane".
* indicates that the given example is grammatically non standard
[edit] Consonants
The Hebrew word for consonants is ‘itsurim (עיצורים). The following table lists the Hebrew consonants and their pronunciation in IPA transcription:
Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Post-
alveolar[30] Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasals m מ n נ
Stops p פּ b בּ t ט,ת,תּ d ד,דּ k ק,כּ g ג,גּ ʔ א,ע
Affricates ʦ צ
Fricatives f פ v ב,ו s ס,שׂ z ז ʃ שׁ ʒ 'ז x ח,כ,ך ʁ ר h ה ɦ
Trills ʀ ר
Approximants j י
Laterals l ל
The pairs /b, v/, /k, x/ and /p, f/ have historically been allophonic. In Modern Hebrew, however, all six sounds are phonemic, due to mergers involving formerly distinct sounds (/v/ merging with /w/, /k/ merging with /q/, /x/ merging with /ħ/), loss of consonant gemination (which formerly distinguished the stop members of the pairs from the fricatives when intervocalic), and the introduction of syllable-initial /f/ through foreign borrowings.
ע was once pronounced as a voiced pharyngeal fricative. Most modern Ashkenazi Jews do not differentiate between א and ע; however, Mizrahi Jews and Arabs pronounce these phonemes. Georgian Jews pronounce it as a glottalized q. Western European Sephardim and Dutch Ashkenazim traditionally pronounce it [ŋ] (like ng in sing) — a pronunciation which can also be found in the Italki tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany. (The remnants of this pronunciation are found throughout the Ashkenazi world, in the name "Yankl" and "Yanki", diminutive forms of Jacob, Heb. יעקב.)
Hebrew also has dagesh, a strengthening. There are two kinds of strengthenings: light (kal, known also as dagesh lene) and heavy (khazak or dagesh forte). There are two sub-categories of the heavy dagesh: structural heavy (khazak tavniti) and complementing heavy (khazak mashlim). The light affects the phonemes /b/ /k/ /p/ (historically, also /g/, /d/ and /t/) in the beginning of a word, or after a resting schwa. Structural heavy emphases belong to certain vowel patterns (mishkalim and binyanim; see the section on grammar below), and correspond originally to doubled consonants. Complementing strengthening is added when vowel assimilation takes place. As mentioned before, the emphasis influences which of a pair of (former) allophones is pronounced. Historical evidence indicates that /g/, /d/ and /t/ also used to have allophones marked by the presence or absence of dagesh kal: these have disappeared from modern Hebrew pronunciation though the distinction in writing still appears in fully pointed texts. All consonants except gutturals and /r/ may receive the heavy emphasis (dagesh khazak).
[edit] Historical sound changes
Standard (non-Oriental) Israeli Hebrew (SIH) has undergone a number of splits and mergers in its development from Biblical Hebrew.[31]
* BH /b/ had two allophones, [b] and [v]; the [v] allophone has merged with /w/ into SIH /v/
* BH /k/ had two allophones, [k] and [x]; the [k] allophone has merged with /q/ into SIH /k/, while the [x] allophone has merged with /ħ/ into SIH /x/
* BH /t/ and /tˤ/ have merged into SIH /t/
* BH /ʕ/ and /ʔ/ have usually merged into SIH /ʔ/, but this distinction may also be upheld in educated speech of many Sephardim and some Ashkenazim
* BH /p/ had two allophones, [p] and [f]; the incorporation of loanwords into Modern Hebrew has probably resulted in a split, so that /p/ and /f/ are separate phonemes.
[edit] Stress
Terminal syllabic stress is by far the most common, penultimate stress being the only other grammatically acceptable option. The two options have names: Terminal stress is called milera (מלרע) and penultimate mil'eil (מלעיל). Spoken Hebrew admits of more stress variation than the official dialect. Stress has phonemic value, e.g. "ילד", when pronounced /'jeled/, means "boy", whereas when pronounced /je'led/ it means "will give birth to".
[edit] Grammar
Main article: Hebrew grammar
Hebrew grammar is partly analytic, expressing such forms as dative, ablative, and accusative using prepositional particles rather than grammatical cases. However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of the verbs and nouns. E.g. nouns have a construct state, called "smikhut", to denote the relationship of "belonging to": this is the converse of the genitive case of more inflected languages. Words in smikhut are often combined with hyphens. In modern speech, the use of the construct is sometimes interchangeable with the preposition "shel", meaning "of". There are many cases, however, where older declined forms are retained (especially in idiomatic expressions and the like), and "person"-enclitics are widely used to "decline" prepositions.
[edit] Writing system
Main article: Hebrew alphabet
Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet. Modern scripts are based on the "square" letter form (which was developed from the Aramaic script). A similar system is used in handwriting, but the letters tend to be more circular in their character, when written in cursive, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents.
[edit] Vowel signs
Original Biblical Hebrew text contained nothing but consonants and spaces and this is still the case with Torah scrolls that are used in synagogues. A system of writing vowels called niqqud (from the root word meaning "points" or "dots") developed around the 5th Century CE. It is used today in printed Bibles and some other religious books and also in poetry, children's literature, and texts for beginning students of Hebrew. Most modern Hebrew texts contain only consonant letters, spaces and western-style punctuation and to facilitate reading without vowels matres lectionis (see below) are often inserted into words which would be written without them in a text with full niqqud. The niqqud system is sometimes used when it is necessary to avoid certain ambiguities of meaning (such as when context is insufficient to distinguish between two identically spelled words) and in the transliteration of foreign names.
[edit] Consonant letters
All Hebrew consonant phonemes are represented by a single letter. Although a single letter might represent two phonemes — the letter "bet," for example, represents both /b/ and /v/ — the two sounds are always related "hard" (plosive) and "soft" (fricative) forms, their pronunciation being very often determined by context. In fully pointed texts, the hard form normally has a dot, known as a dagesh, in its center.
There are twenty-seven symbols, representing twenty-two letters, in the Hebrew alphabet, which is called the "aleph bet" because of its first two letters. The letters are as follows: Aleph, Bet/Vet, Gimel, Dalet, He, Vav, Zayin, Chet, Tet, Yod (pronounced Yud by Israelis), Kaf/Chaf, Lamed, Mem, Nun, Samekh, Ayin, Pe/Fe, Tzadi, Qof (pronounced Koof by Israelis), Resh, Shin/Sin, Tav.
* The letters Bet, Kaf and Pe (historically, also the letters Gimel, Dalet and Tav) are softened to fricatives when following a vowel (except when doubled). In a fully pointed text, this distinction is indicated by the use of dagesh to denote the hard sound. (Occasionally, a horizontal line called rafe, written above the letter, is used to indicate the softened sound.) This has led to the misconception that there are separate letters "Vet", "Chaf" and "Fe".
* The letter Shin/Sin is usually pronounced Sh, but occasionally S. In fully pointed texts, this distinction is indicated by a dot at the top left hand corner (for Sin) or the top right hand corner (for Shin). This may indicate that the pronunciation prevailing when the consonantal spelling of Hebrew was fixed was different from that prevailing when the system of pointing was devised, so that the Sin dot is a permanent reminder saying "this letter is spelled Shin but pronounced Samech". (In Samaritan Hebrew Shin is pronounced Sh wherever it occurs, and there is no "Sin".) Others regard Sin as a genuine phoneme separate from both Shin and Samech and believe that it must once have had a distinct pronunciation.
* There are two written forms of the letters Kaf/Chaf, Mem, Nun, Pe and Tzadi. Each of these is written differently when appearing at the end of a word than when appearing at the beginning or in the middle of the word. The version used at the end of a word is referred to as Final Kaf, Final Mem, etc. Except in the case of Mem, the difference is that the final form has a tail pointing straight down, whereas in the normal form it bends to the left to point to the next letter.
[edit] Mater lectionis
The letters he, vav and yod can represent consonantal sounds (/h/, /v/ and /j/, respectively) or serve as a markers for vowels. In the latter case, these letters are called "emot q'ria" ("matres lectionis" in Latin, "mothers of reading" in English).
The letter he at the end of a word usually indicates a final /a/, which usually indicates feminine gender, or /e/, which usually indicates masculine gender. In rare cases it may also indicate /o/, such as in שְׁלֹמֹה (Shlomo, Solomon). It may also indicate a possessive suffix for 3rd person feminine singular (סִפְרָהּ, her book), but in that case the he is not a mater lectionis but the consonant /h/, although in spoken Hebrew the distinction is rarely made. In texts with niqqud the he is written with a mappiq in the latter case. Correct pronunciation must be guessed according to context and niqqud may be used for disambiguation.
Vav may represent /o/ or /u/, and yod may represent /i/ or /e/. Sometimes a double yud is used for /ej/ or /aj/ (this convention is derived from Yiddish). In some modern Israeli texts, the letter alef is used to indicate long /a/ sounds in foreign names, particularly those of Arabic origin.
In some words there is a choice of whether to use a mater lectionis or not, and in modern printed texts matres lectionis are sometimes used even for short vowels, which is considered to be grammatically incorrect though instances are found as far back as Talmudic times. Spelling with matres lectionis is called male (full), while spelling without matres lectionis is called haser (defective). In Talmudic times texts from Palestine were noticeably more inclined to male spellings than texts from Babylonia: this may reflect the influence of Greek, which had full alphabetic spelling. Similarly in the Middle Ages Ashkenazim tended to use male spellings under the influence of European languages, while Sephardim tended to use haser spellings under the influence of Arabic.
[edit] Indicating stress
There is no one universally accepted sign for indicating stress in Hebrew texts. Usually stress is unmarked. In some vocalized texts, such as prayer books, when the stress is not on the last syllable it is marked with a small stroke placed underneath the first consonant of the stressed syllable to the left of the vowel mark (occasionally, as in Davidson's grammar, a different sign is used, to avoid confusion with meteg, see next paragraph). In vocalized Biblical texts stress is shown by the appropriate cantillation mark.
A secondary stress in a word may be marked with a vertical stroke, called a meteg (מתג), placed to the left of the vowel: this symbol is available in Unicode. Meteg is most usually found two syllables before the main stress: thus, when the following consonant carries a shva, it follows that that shva is a sounded one. (For example, the word ochlah, her food, is written in the same way as āchěla, she ate, but meteg on the first syllable shows that āchěla is intended.)
These signs are used, if at all, only in texts with niqqud.
[edit] See also
* Cantillation
* Hebrew alphabet
* Hebrew literature
* Niqqud (vowel pointing)
* Study of the Hebrew language
* Hebrew phonology
* Romanization of Hebrew
* Hebraization of English
* International Phonetic Alphabet for Hebrew
* Cursive Hebrew
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word:A Language History of the World, Harper Perennial, London, New York, Toronto, Sydney 2006 p80
2. ^ Languages of the World (Hebrew)
3. ^ a b William M. Schniedewind, "Prolegomena for the Sociolinguistics of Classical Hebrew", The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures vol. 5 article 6PDF (373 KiB)
4. ^ M. Segal, A Grammar of Mishnaic Hebrew (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927).
5. ^ Elisha Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harvard Semitic Studies 29 (Atlanta: Scholars Press 1986).
6. ^ Shalom Spiegel,Hebrew Reborn,(1930) Meridian Books reprint 1962, New York p.56
7. ^ Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Resurgence of the Hebrew Language by Libby Kantorwitz
8. ^ The Transformation of Jewish Culture in the USSR from 1930 to the Present (in Russian)
9. ^ Nosonovski, Michael (in Russian)
10. ^ Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931 signed by Albert Einstein, among others
11. ^ "Society / Religion" (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-31.
12. ^ "Jewish oblast retains identity despite emigration". Vladivostok News (2000). Retrieved on 2007-12-31.
13. ^ "Jewish life revived in Russia". Federation of Jewish Communities of the CIS (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-31.
14. ^ These pronunciations may have originated in learners' mistakes formed on the analogy of other suffixed forms (katávta, alénu), rather than being examples of residual Ashkenazi influence.
15. ^ Wexler, Paul, The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: A Slavic Language in Search of a Semitic Past: 1990.
16. ^ Zuckermann, Mosaic or mosaic? – The Genesis of the Israeli Language
17. ^ Zuckermann, Abba, Why Was Professor Higgins Trying to Teach Eliza to Speak Like Our Cleaning Lady?: Mizrahim, Ashkenazim, Prescriptivism and the Real Sounds of the Israeli Language
18. ^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "Complement Clause Types in Israeli", Complementation: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, edited by R. M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 72-92.
19. ^ See p. 62 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71.
20. ^ See Mufwene, Salikoko (2001), The Ecology of Language Evolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
21. ^ See p. 63 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71.
22. ^ See p. 63 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71.
23. ^ A Pocket Lexicon to the Greek New Testament by Alexander Souter (1916), Wycliffe Bible Dictionary (1975), New Dictionary by Avraham Even-Shoshan (1988, in Hebrew). Notice that in the Gospel of John some place names are said to be "in Hebrew", when they are etymologically from Aramaic. John correctly calls the word rabbounei Hebrew.
24. ^ Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14
25. ^ Geoffrey W.Bromley (ed.)The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, W.B.Eeerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan 1979, 4 vols. vol.1 (sub.'Aramaic' p.233
26. ^ J.M.Griatz, ‘Hebrew in the Days of the Second Temple’ QBI, 79 (1960) pp.32-47
27. ^ Elisha Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1986), p. 15.
28. ^ "Hebrew" in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, edit. F.L. Cross, first edition (Oxford, 1958), 3rd edition (Oxford 1997).
29. ^ Miguel Perez Fernandez, An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew (Leiden, Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill 1997).
30. ^ Postalveolar sounds (with the exception of /ʃ/) are not native to Hebrew, and only found in borrowings.
31. ^ Robert Hetzron. (1987). Hebrew. In The World's Major Languages, ed. Bernard Comrie, 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520521-9.
[edit] References
* Hoffman, Joel M, In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 0-8147-3654-8.
* Izre'el, Shlomo, "The emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew", in: Benjamin Hary (ed.), The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew (CoSIH): Working Papers I (2001)
* Kuzar, Ron, Hebrew and Zionism: A Discourse Analytic Cultural Study. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter 2001. ISBN 3-11-016993-2, ISBN 3-11-016992-4.
* Sáenz-Badillos, Angel, A History of the Hebrew Language (trans. John Elwolde). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55634-1
* Laufer, Asher. "Hebrew", in: Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press 1999. ISBN 0-521-65236-7, ISBN 0-521-63751-1.
[edit] External links
Wikipedia
Hebrew language edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wiktionary
Hebrew language edition of Wiktionary, the free dictionary/thesaurus
Wikisource
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Wikibooks
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Hebrew
This article or section may contain an excessive amount of external links.
Please improve this article by incorporating them into the appropriate end section, or by converting them to inline citations. (December 2007)
[edit] Hebrew Learning
* Hebrew on the Web - largest online Hebrew learning site - 2,200 pages
[edit] General
* Hebrew is Easy
* Ancient Hebrew Research Center Research and Learning Hebrew Resources
[edit] Dictionaries
* Root-based (Maskilon)
* Word-search English-Hebrew and Hebrew-English (Morfix)
* Hebrew-English (Maskilon)
* Hebrew-English (DAVAR freeware, English)
* Hebrew-English (Webster's Rosetta Edition)
* English-Hebrew (Maskilon)
* Collection of Hebrew bilingual dictionaries
[edit] History of the Hebrew language
* History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language, David Steinberg
* Short History of the Hebrew Language, Chaim Rabin
* Israeli Hebrew, David Tene
* Israel Language Policy and Linguistics, Haiim B. Rosén
* Words and their History, E. Y. Kutscher
* Hebrew Slang and Foreign Loan Words, Raphael Sappan
* Language in Time of Revolution, Benjamin Harshav
* Hebrew typography in German speaking regions
[edit] Complete texts in Hebrew
* Mechon Mamre - The Bible, Mishnah, Talmud (Babylonian and Palestinian), Tosefta, and Mishneh Torah
* Early Hebrew Newspapers Thousands of pages of mid- to late-19th-century and early 20th-century newspapers written in Hebrew and readable on line. Including contemporary accounts of the Battle of Gettysburg, the assassination of Czar Alexander II, the Dreyfus affair, etc.
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Rome (pronounced /rəʊm/; Italian: Roma, pronounced /'roma/; Latin: Roma) is the capital city of Italy and Lazio,[2] and is Italy's largest and most populous city, with more than 2.7 million residents,[3] and a metropolitan area of almost 4 million inhabitants. It is located in the central-western portion of the Italian peninsula, on the Tiber river.
Rome stands on top of more than two and a half thousand years of history, was once the largest city in the world and a major centre of Western civilisation. Rome is still the seat of the Roman Catholic Church which controls the Vatican City as its sovereign territory, an enclave of Rome.
Today, Rome is a modern and cosmopolitan city and the third most-visited tourist destination in the European Union.[4] Rome's international airport, Fiumicino, is the largest in Italy and the city hosts the head offices of the vast majority of the major Italian companies, as well as the headquarters of three of the world's 100 largest companies: Enel, ENI, and Telecom Italia.[5]
As one of the few major European cities that escaped World War II relatively unscathed, central Rome remains essentially Renaissance and Baroque in character. The historic centre of Rome is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
o 1.1 From founding to Empire
o 1.2 Fall of the Empire and Middle Ages
o 1.3 Renaissance Rome
o 1.4 Towards the reunification of Italy
o 1.5 20th century
* 2 Government
o 2.1 Local
o 2.2 National
o 2.3 Administrative divisions
* 3 Geography
o 3.1 Location
o 3.2 Topography
o 3.3 Climate
* 4 Demography
o 4.1 Ethnic groups
o 4.2 Religion
* 5 Cityscape
o 5.1 Architecture
+ 5.1.1 Ancient Rome
+ 5.1.2 Medieval
+ 5.1.3 Renaissance and Baroque
+ 5.1.4 Neoclassicism
+ 5.1.5 Fascist architecture
o 5.2 Public parks and nature reserves
o 5.3 Museums and galleries
* 6 Economy
* 7 Culture
o 7.1 Language
o 7.2 Education
o 7.3 Music
o 7.4 Cinema
o 7.5 Media
o 7.6 Sports
* 8 Transportation
o 8.1 Airports
o 8.2 Road
o 8.3 Rail
o 8.4 Buses and trams
o 8.5 Metro
* 9 Sister and partner cities
o 9.1 Sister city
o 9.2 Partner cities
* 10 International entities, organisations and involvement
* 11 See also
* 12 References
* 13 Notes
* 14 Documentaries
* 15 External links
History
Main article: History of Rome
From founding to Empire
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus
Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus
According to a legend, Rome was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus on April 21, 753 BC.[7]. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[8] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilizations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From the its foundation, Rome was undefeated in war, although losing occasional battles, until 386 BC when Rome was occupied by the Celts (one of the three main Gallic tribes), and then recovered by Romans in the same year.[9] According to the history, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat.
Roman dominance expanded over most of Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, while its population surpassed one million inhabitants. For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest and largest city in the Western world, and remained so after the Empire started to decline and was split, even if it ultimately lost its capital status to Milan and then Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the Eastern capital Constantinople.
Fall of the Empire and Middle Ages
Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome of 410.
Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome of 410.
With the reign of Constantine I, the Bishop of Rome gained political as well as religious importance, eventually becoming known as the Pope and establishing Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and plundering by Germanic barbarians. Its population declined to a mere 20,000 during the Early Middle Ages, reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire rule until 751 AD when the Lombards finally abolished the Exarchate of Ravenna. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States.
Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation into the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status of Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Pope briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1337).
Renaissance Rome
The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The popes wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrians of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli and Cosimo Rosselli.
The period was also infamous for papal corruption with many popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-reformation.
Towards the reunification of Italy
Garibaldi defends the Roman Republic in 1849.
Garibaldi defends the Roman Republic in 1849.
Italy became caught up in the nationalistic turmoils of the 19th century and twice gained and lost a short-lived independence. Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861 Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s the last vestiges of the Papal states were under French protection. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome.
20th century
After a victorious World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declared a new Empire and allied Italy with Nazi Germany. This was a period of rapid growth in population, from the 212,000 people at the time of unification to more than 1,000,000, but this trend was halted by World War II, during which Rome was damaged by both Allied forces bombing and Nazi occupation; after the execution of Mussolini and the end of the war, a 1946 referendum abolished the monarchy in favour of the Italian Republic.
Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of la dolce vita ("the sweet life"), and a new rising trend in population continued till the mid-1980s, when the comune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby surburbs.
Government
The Quirinal Palace, official residence of the President of the Italian Republic.
The Quirinal Palace, official residence of the President of the Italian Republic.
Local
Rome constitutes one of Italy's 8,101 comunes, albeit the largest both by extent and population. It is governed by a Mayor, currently Giovanni Alemanno, and a city council. The seat of the comune is in on the Capitoline Hill the historic seat of government in Rome. The local administration in Rome is commonly referred to as "Campidoglio", the name of the hill in Roman dialect.
National
Rome is the national capital of Italy and is the seat of the Italian Government. The official residences of the President of the Italian Republic and the Italian Prime Minister, the seats of both houses of the Italian Parliament and that of the Italian Constitutional Court are located in the historic centre. While the state ministries are spread out around the city. These include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs which is located in Palazzo della Farnesina near the Olympic stadium.
Administrative divisions
See also: Administrative subdivision of Rome
Rome is divided into 19 administrative areas, called municipi or municipalities. They were created administrative reasons and to increase decentralisation in the city. Each municipality is governed by a president and a council of four members who are elected by the denizens of the municipality every five years. The municipalities frequently divide the traditional, non-administrative divisions of the city.
Rome is also divided into differing types of non-administrative divisions. The historic centre is divided into 22 rioni, all of which are located within the Aurelian walls except Prati and Borgo. After the designation of the newest and last rione, Prati, newer districts of the city were designated as quarters. There are 35 of these and they go all the way to the sea at Ostia, where they are called marine quarters. Rome also has six officially designated suburban zones and 52 agricultural zones. Many of the latter, however, have actuality been subject to considerable development.
Geography
Location
Rome is in the Lazio region of central Italy on the Tiber river (Italian: Tevere). The original settlement developed on hills which faced onto a ford beside the Tiber island, the only natural ford on the river. The historic centre of Rome was build on seven hills: the Aventine Hill, the Caelian Hill, the Capitoline Hill, the Esquiline Hill, the Palatine Hill, the Quirinal Hill, and the Viminal Hill. The city is also traversed by another river the Aniene with joins the Tiber to the north of the historic centre.
Although the city centre is about 24 kilometres (14.9 mi) inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea, the city territory extends to the very shore, where the south-western Ostia district is located. The altitude of the central part of Rome ranges from 13 m (43 ft) above sea level (at the base of the Pantheon) to 139 m (456 ft) above sea level (the peak of Monte Mario).[10] The comune of Rome covers an overall area of about 1,285 km2 (496 sq mi), including many green areas.
Topography
Rome seen from satellite
Rome seen from satellite
Historically the urban limits of Rome were considered to be the area within the city walls. Originally these were the Servian Wall which was built twelve years after Gauls' sack of the city in 390 BC. This contained most of the Esquiline and Caelian hills, as well as the whole of the other five. Rome grew out of the Servian Wall, but no more walls were constructed until almost 700 years later, when in 270 AD Emprior Aurelian began building the Aurelian Walls. These were almost 19 kilometres (12 mi) long, and were still the walls the troops of the Kingdom of Italy had to breach to enter the city in 1870. Modern Romans frequently consider the city's urban area to be delimited by its ring-road, the Grande Raccordo Anulare, which circles the city-centre at a distance of about 10km.
The Comune of Rome, however, covers considerably more territory and extends to the sea at Ostia, the largest town in Italy not to be a comune in its own right. The comune covers an area roughly three time the total area within the Raccordo and is comparable in area to the entire provinces of Milan and Naples, and to an area six times the size of the territory of these cities. The comune also includes considerable areas of abandoned march land which is neither suitable for agriculture nor for urban development.
Consequently the density of the comume is not that high, the communal territory being divided between strongly urbanised areas with areas designated as parks, nature reserves and agricultural use. The Province of Rome is the largest by area in Italy. At 5.352 km² its dimensions are comparable to the region of Liguria and more than three times the size of the greater metropolitan area of London.
Climate
Rome enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate which characterizes the Mediterranean coasts of Italy. It is at its most comfortable from April through June, and from mid-September to October; in particular, the Roman ottobrate (which can be roughly translated as the "beautiful October days") are famously known as sunny and warm days. By August, the temperature during the heat of the day often exceeds 32 °C (90 °F). Traditionally, many businesses closed during August, and Romans abandoned the city for holiday resorts. In more recent years, however, in response to growing tourism and changing work habits, the city is increasingly staying open for the whole summer. The average high temperature in December is about 13 °C (57 °F), but below zero lows are not uncommon.
[hide]Weather averages for Rome
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average high °C (°F) 12 (54) 13 (55) 16 (61) 19 (66) 23 (73) 27 (81) 31 (88) 31 (88) 27 (81) 22 (72) 17 (63) 13 (55)
Average low °C (°F) 2 (36) 3 (37) 4 (39) 7 (45) 11 (52) 14 (57) 17 (63) 17 (63) 14 (57) 10 (50) 6 (43) 3 (37)
Precipitation mm (inches) 83 (3.27) 76 (2.99) 68 (2.68) 68 (2.68) 48 (1.89) 40 (1.57) 22 (0.87) 35 (1.38) 76 (2.99) 106 (4.17) 119 (4.69) 91 (3.58)
Source: Weather.com[11] 2008
Demography
At the time of emperor Augustus, Rome was the largest city in the world, and probably the largest ever built until the nineteenth century. Estimates of its peak population range from 450,000 to over 3.5 million people with 1 to 2 million being most popular with historians. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the city's population fell dramatically to around less than 50,000 people, and continued to either stagnate or shrink until the Renaissance.
When the Kingdom of Italy annexed Rome in 1870, it had a population of about 200,000, which rapidly increased to 600,000 at the eve of World War I. The fascist regime of Mussolini tried to block an excessive demographic rise of the city, but failed to prevent it from reaching one million people by 1931. After the second world war, growth continued, helped by a post-war economic boom. A construction boom also created a large number of suburbs during the 1950s and 1960s
Map depicting late ancient Rome
Map depicting late ancient Rome
Year Population
350 BC 30.000
250 BC 150.000
44 BC 1.000.000
120 1.650.000
330 600.000
410 200.000
530 50.000
650 20.000
1000 20.000
1400 20.000
1526 50.000-60.000
1528 20.000
Year Population
1600 100.000
1750 156.000
1800 163.000
1820 139.900
1850 175.000
1853 175.800
1858 182.600
1861 194.500
1871 212.432
1881 273.952
1901 422.411
1911 518.917
Year Population
1921 660.235
1931 930.926
1936 1.150.589
1951 1.651.754
1961 2.188.160
1971 2.781.993
1981 2.840.259
1991 2.775.250
2001 2.663.182
2007 2.718.768
In 2007, there were 2,718,768 people residing in Rome (in which some 4 million live in the greater Rome area), located in the province of Rome, Lazio, of whom 47.2% were male and 52.8% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 17.00 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 20.76 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Rome resident is 43 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Rome grew by 6.54 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent.[12] The current birth rate of Rome is 9.10 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.
Ethnic groups
As of 2006, 92.63% of the population was Italian. The largest other ethnic groups came from other European countries (mostly from Romania and Poland): 3.14%, East Asia (mostly Filipino): 1.28%, and the Americas (mostly from Peru): 1.09%. It is also important to note that there are tens of thousands of illegal migrants living in Rome.
Religion
Rome is the centre of the Roman Catholic religion and much in common with the rest of Italy, the large majority of Romans are Roman Catholics. In recent years, the Islamic community in Rome has grown significantly, in great part due to immigration from North African and Middle Eastern countries into the city. As a consequence of this trend, the city promoted the building of the largest mosque in Europe, which was designed by architect Paolo Portoghesi and inaugurated on 21 June 1995.
Cityscape
Panorama of Rome from the dome of St. Peter's Basilica.
Panorama of Rome from the dome of St. Peter's Basilica.
Architecture
Ancient Rome
The Pantheon.
The Pantheon.
Main article: Roman architecture
One of the symbols of Rome is the Colosseum (70-80 AD), the largest amphitheatre ever built in the Roman Empire. Originally capable of seating 60,000 spectators, it was used for gladiatorial combat. The list of the very important monuments of ancient Rome includes the Roman Forum, the Domus Aurea, the Pantheon, Trajan's Column, Trajan's Market, the Catacombs, the Circus Maximus, the Baths of Caracalla, Castel Sant'Angelo, the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Ara Pacis, the Arch of Constantine, the Pyramid of Cestius, and the Bocca della Verità.
Medieval
See also: Medieval architecture
Often overlooked, Rome's medieval heritage is one of the largest in Italian cities. Basilicas dating from the Paleochristian age include Santa Maria Maggiore and San Paolo Fuori le Mura (the latter largely rebuilt in the 19th century), both housing precious 4th century AD mosaics. Later notable medieval mosaic and fresco art can be also found in the churches of Santa Maria in Trastevere, Santi Quattro Coronati and Santa Prassede. Lay buildings include a number of towers, the largest being the Torre delle Milizie and the Torre dei Conti, both next the Roman Forum, and the huge staircase leading to the basilica of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli.
Renaissance and Baroque
See also: Renaissance architecture and Baroque architecture
Saint Peter's Square.
Saint Peter's Square.
Rome was a major world centre of the Renaissance, second only to Florence, and was profoundly affected by the movement. The most impressive masterpiece of Renaissance architecture in Rome is the Piazza del Campidoglio by Michelangelo, along with the Palazzo Senatorio, seat of the city government. During this period, the great aristocratic families of Rome used to build opulent dwellings as the Palazzo del Quirinale (now seat of the President of the Italian Republic), the Palazzo Venezia, the Palazzo Farnese, the Palazzo Barberini, the Palazzo Chigi (now seat of the Italian Prime Minister), the Palazzo Spada, the Palazzo della Cancelleria, and the Villa Farnesina.
Rome is also famous for her huge and majestic squares (often adorned with obelisks), many of which were built in the 17th century. The principal squares are Piazza Navona, Piazza di Spagna, Campo de' Fiori, Piazza Venezia, Piazza Farnese and Piazza della Minerva. One of the most emblematic examples of the baroque art is the Fontana di Trevi by Nicola Salvi. Other notable baroque palaces of 17th century are the Palazzo Madama, now seat of the Italian Senate and the Palazzo Montecitorio, now seat of the Chamber of Deputies of Italy.
Neoclassicism
The Vittorio Emanuele Monument.
The Vittorio Emanuele Monument.
See also: Neoclassical architecture
In 1870, Rome became capital city of the new Kingdom of Italy. During this time, neoclassicism, a building style influenced by the architecture of antiquity, became a predominant influence in Roman architecture. In this period many great palaces in neoclassical styles were built to host ministries, embassies and other governing agencies. One of the best-known symbol of Roman neoclassicism is the Monument of Vittorio Emanuele II or "Altar of Fatherland", where the Grave of the Unknown Soldier, that represents the 650,000 Italians that fell in World War I, is located.
Fascist architecture
See also: Fascist architecture
The Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana.
The Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana.
The Fascist regime that ruled in Italy between 1922 and 1943 developed an architectural style which was characterized by its links with ancient Roman architecture. The most important fascist site in Rome is the E.U.R. district, designed in 1938 by Marcello Piacentini. It was originally conceived for the 1942 world exhibition, and was called "E.42" ("Esposizione 42"). The world exhibition, however, never took place because Italy entered the Second World War in 1940. The most representative building of the Fascist style at E.U.R. is the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana (1938-1943), the iconic design of which has been labelled the cubic or Square Colosseum.
After World War II, the Roman authorities found that they already had the seed of an off-centre business district that other capitals were still planning (London Docklands and La Defense in Paris). Also the Palazzo della Farnesina, the current seat of Italian Foreign Ministry, was designed in 1935 in fascist style.
Public parks and nature reserves
Villa Borghese: the 19th century "Temple of Aesculapius" built purely as a landscape feature, influenced by the lake at Stourhead, Wiltshire, England.
Villa Borghese: the 19th century "Temple of Aesculapius" built purely as a landscape feature, influenced by the lake at Stourhead, Wiltshire, England.
Public parks and nature reserves cover a large area in Rome, and the city has one of the largest areas of green space amongst European capitals.[13]. The most notable part of this green space is represented by the large number of villas and landscaped gardens created by the Italian aristocracy. While many villas were destroyed during the building boom of the late 19th century but a great many nonetheless remain. The most notable of these are Villa Borghese, Villa Ada and Villa Doria Pamphili.
Of much more recent origin, Rome has a number of regional parks including the Pineto Regional Park and the Appian Way Regional Park. There are also nature reserves at Marcigliana, and at Tenuta di Castelporziano.
Museums and galleries
The most important museums and galleries of Rome include the National Museum of Rome, the Museum of Roman Civilization, the Villa Giulia National Etruscan Museum, the Capitoline Museums, the Borghese Gallery, the Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, and the National Gallery of Modern Art.
Economy
Eni's headquarters in EUR, Rome's business district
Eni's headquarters in EUR, Rome's business district
Modern day Rome has a dynamic and diverse economy with thriving technologies, communications, and service sectors. It produces 6.7% of the national GDP (more than any other city in Italy). Rome grows +4,4% annually and continues to grow at a higher rate in comparison to any other city in the rest of the country. Following World War II Rome's economic growth began to overtake its rivals,[citation needed] Naples and Milan, although a traditional rivalry persists with Milan today. Tourism is inevitably one of Rome's chief industries, with numerous notable museums including the Vatican Museum, the Borghese Gallery, and the Musei Capitolini. Rome is also the hub of the Italian film industry, thanks to the Cinecittà studios. The city is also a centre for banking as well as electronics and aerospace industries. Numerous international headquarters, government ministries, conference centres, sports venues and museums are located in Rome's principal business districts: the Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR); the Torrino (further south from the EUR); the Magliana; the Parco de' Medici-Laurentina and the so-called Tiburtina-valley along the ancient Via Tiburtina.
Culture
Language
The original language of Rome was Latin, which evolved during the Middle Ages into Italian. The latter emerged as the confluence of various regional dialects, among which the Tuscan dialect predominated, but the population of Rome also developed its own dialect, the Romanesco. The ancient romanesco, used during the Middle Ages, was a southern Italian dialect, very close to the Neapolitan. The influence of the Florentine culture during the renaissance, and, above all, the immigration to Rome of many Florentines who were among the two Medici Popes' (Leo X and Clement VII) suite, caused a strong change of the dialect, which resembled more the Tuscan varieties (the immigration of Florentines was mainly due to the Sack of Rome in 1527 and the subsequent demographic decrease). This remained largely confined to Rome until the 19th century, but then expanded to other zones of Lazio (Civitavecchia, Latina), from the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the rising population of Rome and to better transportation systems. As a consequence, Romanesco abandoned its traditional forms to mutate into the dialect spoken within the city, which is more similar to standard Italian, although remaining distinct from other Romanesco-influenced local dialects of Lazio. Dialectal literature in the traditional form Romanesco includes the works of such authors as Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli, Trilussa, and Cesare Pascarella. Contemporary Romanesco is mainly represented by popular actors such as Aldo Fabrizi, Alberto Sordi, Nino Manfredi, Anna Magnani, Gigi Proietti, Enrico Montesano, and Carlo Verdone.
Education
Rome is a nation-wide centre for higher education. Its first university, La Sapienza (founded in 1303), is the largest in Europe and the second largest in the world, with more than 150,000 students attending.[citation needed] Two new public universities were founded: Tor Vergata in 1982, and Roma Tre in 1992, although the latter has now become larger than the former. Rome also contains a large number of pontifical universities and institutes, including the Pontifical Gregorian University (The oldest Jesuit university in the world, founded in 1551), the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, and many others. The city also hosts various private universities, such as the LUMSA, the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Roman centre), the LUISS, Istituto Europeo di Design, the St. John's University, the John Cabot University, the IUSM, the American University of Rome, the Scuola Lorenzo de' Medici, the Link Campus of Malta, the S. Pio V University of Rome, and the Università Campus Bio-Medico. Rome is also the location of the John Felice Rome Centre, a campus of Loyola University Chicago.
Music
Rome is an important centre for music. It hosts the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia (founded in 1585), for which new concert halls have been built in the new Parco della Musica, one of the largest musical venues in the world. Rome also has an opera house, the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, as well as several minor musical institutions. The city also played host to the Eurovision Song Contest in 1991 and the MTV Europe Music Awards in 2004.
Cinema
Set of Gangs of New York in Cinecittà studios, Rome.
Set of Gangs of New York in Cinecittà studios, Rome.
Rome hosts the Cinecittà Studios, the largest film and television production facility in continental Europe and the centre of the Italian cinema, where a large number of today's biggest box office hits are filmed. The 99 acre (40 ha) studio complex is 5.6 miles (9 km) from the centre of Rome and is part of one of the biggest production communities in the world, second only to Hollywood, with well over 5,000 professionals - from period costume makers to visual effects specialists. More than 3,000 productions have been made on its lot, from recent features like The Passion of the Christ, Gangs of New York, HBO’s Rome, The Life Aquatic and Dino De Laurentiis’ Decameron, to such cinema classics as Ben Hur, Cleopatra and the films of Federico Fellini.
Founded in 1937 by Benito Mussolini, the studios were bombed by the Western Allies during World War II. In the 1950s, Cinecittà was the filming location for several large American film productions, and subsequently became the studio most closely associated with Federico Fellini. Today Cinecittà is the only studio in the world with pre-production, production and full post-production facilities on one lot, allowing directors and producers to walk in with their script and "walk out" with a completed film.
Media
Newspapers Magazines Television Radio
* City (Rome edition)
* Corriere dello Sport
* Leggo
* Liberazione
* Il Manifesto
* Il Messaggero
* Metro (Rome edition)
* L'Osservatore Romano
* QN
* La Repubblica
* Il Romanista
* Il Tempo
* L'Unità
* Audio Review
* L'Espresso
* Frequency
* XL Repubblica
* Il Venerdì di Repubblica
* RAI (national centre)
* Sky Italia (national centre)
* La7 (national centre)
* Mediaset Centri di Produzione TV (Rome centre)
* Mediaset centri produzione Fiction
* Mediaset TG5 centro Palatino (Rome centre)
* Radio Capital
* Radio CNR
* Radio Deejay (Rome centre)
* Radio Dimensione Suono
* Radio Dimensione Suono Roma
* Radio Globo
* Radio Italia
* RadioRock
* Radio Radicale
* Radio Radio
* Radio Vaticana
* Radio 24 (Rome centre)
Sports
Club Sport Founded League Venue Head Coach
A.S. Roma Football (soccer) 1927 Serie A Stadio Olimpico Luciano Spalletti
S.S. Lazio Football (soccer) 1900 Serie A Stadio Olimpico Delio Rossi
A.S. Cisco Roma Football (soccer) 1972 Serie C2 Stadio Flaminio Fabio Fratena
Pallacanestro Virtus Roma Basketball 1960 Serie A PalaLottomatica Jasmin Repeša
M. Roma Volley Volleyball 2006 A 1 Palazzetto dello Sport Roberto Serniotti
Unione Rugby Capitolina Rugby union 1996 Super 10 Stadio Flaminio Massimo Mascioletti
Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is an official candidate to hosting the 2020 Summer Olympics.
Football is the most popular sport in Rome, as in the rest of the country. The Olympic Stadium hosted the final game of the 1990 FIFA World Cup; it is also the home stadium for local Serie A clubs A.S. Roma and S.S. Lazio, whose rivalry has become a staple of Roman sports culture. Indeed, famous footballers who play for these teams and are also born in the city tend to become especially popular, as has been the case with players such as Francesco Totti and Daniele De Rossi (both for A.S. Roma).
While far from being as popular as football, Rugby union is gaining wider acceptance. The Stadio Flaminio is the home stadium for the Italy national rugby union team, which has been playing in the Six Nations Championship since 2000, albeit with less than satisfactory performances, as they have never won the championship so far. Rome is home to local rugby teams, such as Unione Rugby Capitolina, Rugby Roma, and S.S. Lazio.
Every May, Rome hosts the ATP Masters Series tennis tournament on the clay courts of the Foro Italico. Cycling was immensely popular in the post-WWII period, although its popularity has faded in the last decades; Rome has hosted the final portion of the Giro d'Italia twice, in 1989 and 2000. Rome is also home to many other sports teams, including basketball (Virtus Roma), volleyball (M. Roma Volley), handball or waterpolo.
Transportation
Airports
Rome is served by three airports, of which the main two are owned by Aeroporti di Roma. The intercontinental Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport is Italy's chief airport and is more commonly known as "Fiumicino Airport", as it is located within the comune of Fiumicino, south-west of Rome. The older Rome Ciampino Airport is a joint civilian and military airport. It is more commonly referred to as "Ciampino Airport", as it is located beside Ciampino, south-east of Rome.
A third airport, the Aeroporto dell'Urbe, is a small, low-traffic airport located about 6 km north of the city centre, which handles most helicopter and private flights. A fourth airport in the eastern part of the city, the Aeroporto di Centocelle (dedicated to Francesco Baracca), is no longer open to flights; it hosts the Comando di Squadra Aerea (which coordinates the activities of the Aeronautica Militare Italiana) and the Comando Operativo di Vertice Interforze[14] (which coordinates all Italian military activities), although large parts of the airport are being redeveloped as a public park.
Road
The Appian Way, constructed in the 4th century BC
The Appian Way, constructed in the 4th century BC
Rome is at the centre of the radial network of roads which roughly follow the lines of the ancient roman roads that began at the Capitoline Hill and connected Rome with its empire. Today Rome is circled, at a distance of about 10km, by the ring-road called the Grande Raccordo Anulare.
Rome suffers from considerable traffic problems largely due to this largely radial street pattern which make it difficult for Romans to easily move from the vicinity of one the radial roads to another without going into the historic centre or using the ring-road. Problems which are not helped by limited size of Rome's metro system when compared to similarly sized cities. Chronic congestion caused by cars during the 1970s and 1980s led to restrictions being placed on vehicle access to the inner city centre during the daylight hours. Areas where these restriction apply are known as Limited Traffic Zones (Zona a Traffico Limitato (ZTL) in Italian). More recently, heavy night-time traffic in Trastevere and San Lorenzo has led to the creation of night-time ZTLs in those districts. And there are also plans to create another night-time ZTL in Testaccio.
Rome has 21 taxis for every 10,000 inhabitants - far below other major European cities.[15]
Rail
With its 29 platforms and over 150 million passengers each year, Roma Termini railway station is one of the largest train stations in Europe.
With its 29 platforms and over 150 million passengers each year, Roma Termini railway station is one of the largest train stations in Europe.
Due to its location in the centre of the Italian peninsula, Rome is a principle railway node for central Italy. Rome main train station, Termini is one of the biggest train stations in Europe and the most trafficed in Italy with around 400 thousand daily travellers. The second largest station in the city, Roma Tiburtina, is currently being redeveloped as high-speed rail terminus.[16]. Other significant main line station are Roma Ostiense, Roma Trastevere and Roma Tuscolana.
Buses and trams
Roman tram in Largo di Torre Argentina
Roman tram in Largo di Torre Argentina
Above ground public transport in Rome is made up of a bus and tram network. This network is run by Trambus S.p.A. under the auspices of ATAC S.p.A. (which originally stood for the Bus and Tram Agency of the Comune, Azienda Tranvie ed Autobus del Comune in Italian). The bus network is currently made up of in excess of 350 bus lines and over 8 thousand bus stops. Whilst the limited tram system currently has 39 km of track and 192 stops.[17]
Metro
Map of Roman Tram System
Map of Roman Tram System
Main article: Metropolitana di Roma
A 2-line metro system operates in Rome. Called the Metropolitana. Construction on the first branch started in the 1930s. The line had been planned to quickly connect the main train station with the newly planned E42 area in the southern suburbs, where the 1942 World Fair was supposed to be held. The event never took place because of war. The area was later partly redesigned and renamed EUR (Esposizione Universale di Roma: Rome Universal Exhibition) in the 1950s to serve as a modern business district. The line was finally opened in 1955 and it is now part of the B Line. The A line opened in 1980 from Ottaviano to Anagnina stations, later extended in stages (1999 - 2000) to Battistini. In the 1990s, an extension of the B line was opened from Termini to Rebibbia. This underground network is generally reliable (although it may become very congested at peak times and during events, especially the A line) as it is relatively short. As of 2005, its total length is 38 km (24 mi). The two existing lines, A & B, intersect at Roma Termini station. A new branch of the B line (B1) is under construction with an estimated cost of 482,900,000 Euro. It is scheduled to open in 2010. B1 will connect to line B at Piazza Bologna and will have 4 stations over a distance of 3.9 km (2 mi).
A third line, line C, is under construction with an estimated cost of 3,000,000,000 Euro and will have 30 stations over a distance of 25.5 km (16 mi). It will partly replace the existing Rail Road line, Termini-Pantano. It will feature full automated, driverless trains.[18] The first section is due to open in 2011 and the final sections in 2015, but archaeological findings often delay underground construction work. A fourth line, line D, is under development. It will have 22 stations over a distance of 20 km (12 mi). The first section is projected to open in 2015 and the final sections before 2035.
Sister and partner cities
Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type Cultural
Criteria i, ii, iii, iv, vi
Reference {{{ID}}}
Region Europe and North America
Inscription history
Inscription {{{Year}}} (Unknown Session)
Extensions 1990
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.
Region as classified by UNESCO.
Rome has one sister city, and a number of partner cities:
Sister city
* Flag of France Paris, France (French: Seule Paris est digne de Rome; seule Rome est digne de Paris; Italian: Solo Parigi è degna di Roma; solo Roma è degna di Parigi; English: Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris).[19]
Partner cities
* Flag of Bolivia Achacachi, Bolivia.
* Flag of Spain Marbella, Spain.
* Flag of Algeria Algiers, Algeria.
* Flag of the People's Republic of China Beijing, China.
* Flag of Serbia Belgrade, Serbia.
* Flag of Brazil Brasília, Brazil.
* Flag of Egypt Cairo, Egypt.
* Flag of the United States Cincinnati, United States.
* Flag of Ukraine Kiev, Ukraine.
* Flag of the United Kingdom London, United Kingdom.
* Flag of Canada Montreal, Canada.
* Flag of the United States New York City, United States.
* Flag of Bulgaria Plovdiv, Bulgaria.
* Flag of South Korea Seoul, South Korea.
* Flag of Australia Sydney, Australia.
* Flag of Japan Tokyo, Japan.
* Flag of Belgium Tongeren, Belgium.
International entities, organisations and involvement
See also: Vatican City
Rome is unique in having a sovereign state located entirely within its city limits, the Vatican City. The Vatican is a enclave of Rome and a sovereign possession of the Holy See the supreme government of the Roman Catholic Church. Rome hosts foreign embassies to both Italy and the Holy See, although frequently the same ambassador is accredited to both.
Another body the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM) took refuge in Rome in 1834 after having lost Malta to Napoleon. It is sometimes classified as having sovereignty but does claim any territory in Rome or anywhere else, hence leading to dispute over its actual sovereign status.
FAO headquarters in Rome (former seat of the Department of Italian East Africa)
FAO headquarters in Rome (former seat of the Department of Italian East Africa)
Rome is also the seat of significant international organisations of the United Nations, such as the World Food Program (WFP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).
Rome has traditionally been heavily involved in the process of European political integration. In 1957, the city hosted the signing of the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (predecessor to the European Union), and also played host to the official signing of the proposed European constitution in July 2004.
Rome was also where the Statute of the International Criminal Court was formulated.
See also
* Churches of Rome
* Glocal Forum, the International on-governmental organization with main office located in Rome
* Large Cities Climate Leadership Group
* List of ancient monuments in Rome
* Popular Shopping Areas and Markets in Rome
References
1. ^ http://demo.istat.it/bilmens2006/index.html- ISTAT demographics
2. ^ "Rome (Italy)". Encarta. Retrieved on 2008-05-10.
3. ^ http://demo.istat.it December 2006
4. ^ Top 150 City Destinations London Leads the Way
5. ^ DeCarlo, Scott (2006-03-30). "The World's 2000 Largest Public Companies", Forbes. Retrieved on 2007-01-16.
6. ^ "Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura". UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved on 2008-06-08.
7. ^ "Rome: Pre-20th-Century History". Lonely Planet. Retrieved on 2008-07-04.
8. ^ Wilford, John Nobel (2007-06-12). "More Clues in the Legend (or Is It Fact?) of Romulus", New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-08-11.
9. ^ Livy, Book 5.
10. ^ Ravaglioli, Armando (1997). Roma anno 2750 ab Urbe condita. Rome: Tascabili Economici Newton. ISBN 888183670X.
11. ^ "Monthly Averages for Rome, Italy". The Weather Channel. Retrieved on 2008-06-01.
12. ^ http://demo.istat.it/bil2007/index.html
13. ^ www.romaperkyoto.org
14. ^ http://www.difesa.it/SMD/COI/La+sede.htm - Entry about the Centocelle Airport in the official website of the Italian Ministero della Difesa
15. ^ "Central Rome Streets Blocked by Taxi Drivers". The New York Times (2007-11-30). Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
16. ^ http://eurostar-av.trenitalia.com/it/progetto/stazioni_rinnovate/roma_tiburtina.html - Entry on Roma Tiburtina station on the official website of the Italian high-speed rail service (in Italian)
17. ^ The figures are from the ATAC website (in Italian).
18. ^ Kington, Tom (2007-05-14). "Roman remains threaten metro", Guardian Newspaper. Retrieved on 2008-08-10.
19. ^ "www.v1.paris.fr/EN/city_government/international/special_partners.asp".
Notes
* Lucentini, Mario (2002). La Grande Guida di Roma (in Italian). Rome: Newton & Compton Editori. ISBN 88-8289-053-8.
* Spoto, Salvatore (1999). Roma Esoterica (in Italian). Rome: Newton & Compton Editori. ISBN 88-8289-265-4.
* Richard Brilliant (2006). Roman Art. An American's View. Rome: Di Renzo Editore. ISBN 88-8323-085-X.
Documentaries
* The Holy Cities: Rome produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006.
External links
Find more about Roma on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Dictionary definitions
Textbooks
Quotations
Source texts
Images and media
News stories
Learning resources
Official
* Official site of the City of Rome (Italian)
* APT (official Tourist Office) of the City of Rome (English)
* Rome Museums - Official site (Italian)
* Vatican Museums (English)
* Capitoline Museums (English)
Other
* Rome travel guide from Wikitravel
* Rome travel guides at the Open Directory Project
* City models of Ancient Rome
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1 Transcontinental country. 2 Entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 3 Partially recognised or unrecognised country. 4 Constituent of the United Kingdom. 5 As part of Spain. 6 Also the seat of the European Union, see Location of European Union institutions and Brussels and the European Union.
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Lazio • Comuni of the Province of Rome
Lazio
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Summer Olympic Games host cities
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World Heritage Sites in Italy
For official site names, see each article or the List of World Heritage Sites in Italy.
Aeolian Islands • Aquileia • Agrigento • Pompeii, Herculaneum, Torre Annunziata • Botanical Garden, Padua • Caserta Palace, Aqueduct of Vanvitelli, San Leucio Complex • Castel del Monte • Cilento and Vallo di Diano, Paestum, Velia, Certosa di Padula • Amalfi Coast • Crespi d'Adda • Ravenna • Cerveteri, Tarquinia • Ferrara • Florence • Assisi • Matera • Cathedral, Torre Civica, Piazza Grande, Modena • Naples • Genoa • Mantua • Piazza del Duomo, Pisa • Pienza • Portovenere, Cinque Terre (Monterosso al Mare, Vernazza, Corniglia, Manarola, Riomaggiore), Palmaria, Tino, Tinetto • Residences of the Royal House of Savoy • Rock Drawings in Valcamonica • Rome1 • Sabbioneta • Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy • San Gimignano • Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan • Val di Noto (Caltagirone, Militello in Val di Catania, Catania, Modica, Noto, Palazzolo Acreide, Ragusa, Scicli) • Siena • Barumini nuraghes • Syracuse, Necropolis of Pantalica • Alberobello • Urbino • Val d'Orcia • Venice • Verona • Vicenza, Palladian Villas of the Veneto • Hadrian's Villa • Villa d'Este • Villa Romana del Casale
Flag of Italy
1 Shared with the Holy See.
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Landmarks of Rome
Basilicas and other religious sites
Catacombs of Rome • San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane • Basilica di San Clemente • Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore • Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls • Basilica of St. John Lateran • Chiesa del Gesù • Ghetto • Santa Croce in Gerusalemme • Santa Maria degli Angeli • Santa Maria in Aracoeli • Santa Maria in Cosmedin • Santa Maria in Trastevere • Santa Prassede • Santa Sabina • St. Peter's Basilica • Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza • Sistine Chapel
Gardens, parks and natural attractions
Tiber Island • Villa Ada • Villa Borghese • Villa Doria Pamphili • Villa Medici
Ancient temples, monuments and sporting venues
Ara Pacis • Castel Sant'Angelo • Circus Maximus • Colosseum • Column of Marcus Aurelius • Largo di Torre Argentina • Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II • Obelisks • Palazzo Barberini • Pantheon • Pyramid of Cestius • Roman Forum • Temple of Hercules Victor • Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill) • Theatre of Marcellus • Temple of Portunus • Trajan's Column • Trajan's Market • Stadio Olimpico • Mausoleum of Augustus
Aqueducts, squares, fountains, towers and walls
Trevi Fountain • Baths of Caracalla • Aurelian Walls • Servian Wall • Palazzo Farnese • Piazza Navona • Spanish Steps • Torre delle Milizie
Sculptures
Apollo Belvedere • Augustus of Prima Porta • La Bocca della Verità • Laocoön and his Sons
Seven Hills
Aventine Hill • Caelian Hill • Capitoline Hill • Esquiline Hill • Palatine Hill • Quirinal Hill • Viminal Hill
Coordinates: [show location on an interactive map] 41°54′N, 12°30′E
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"
Categories: Cities and towns in the Lazio | Communes of the Province of Rome | Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games | World Heritage Sites in Italy | Rome | Capitals in Europe | Settlements established in the 8th century BC | Holy cities | Major Cities in Italy | River cities
2:34 Also in thy x skirts is found the blood of the souls of the poor innocents: I have not found it by secret search, but upon all these.
(x) The prophets and the faithful are slain in every corner of your country.
2:36 Why dost thou go about so much to change thy way? thou also shalt be ashamed of Egypt, y as thou wast ashamed of Assyria.
(y) For the Assyrians had taken away the ten tribes out of Israel and destroyed Judah even to Jerusalem: and the Egyptians slew Josiah, and vexed the Jews in various ways.
2:37 Yea, thou shalt go forth from him, and thy hands upon z thy head: for the LORD hath rejected thy confidences, and thou shalt not prosper in them.
"At that time the sign of the Son of Man will appear in the sky, and all the nations of the earth will mourn. They will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of the sky, with power and great glory. And he will send his angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of the heavens to the other. "Now learn this lesson from the fig tree: As soon as its twigs get tender and its leaves come out, you know that summer is near. Even so, when you see all these things, you know that it[d]is near, right at the door. I tell you the truth, this generation[e] will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened. Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away. The Day and Hour Unknown "No one knows about that day or hour, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son,[f] but only the Father. People that're lost mostly want to stay lost because so much of the devil is in them. My past neighbor in the condo absolutely, immediately had a no when I began inviting them to church. There's something about people like that. You'll see or hear their misery. You'll see the strait path is the happiest path. Have you ever noticed teleministers only use “God” not “Jesus.”? They do so not to offend people. As it was in the days of Noah, so it will be at the coming of the Son of Man. For in the days before the flood, people were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, up to the day Noah entered the ark; and they knew nothing about what would happen until the flood came and took them all away. That is how it will be at the coming of the Son of Man. Two men will be in the field; one will be taken and the other left. Two women will be grinding with a hand mill; one will be taken and the other left. "Therefore keep watch, because you do not know on what day your Lord will come. But understand this: If the owner of the house had known at what time of night the thief was coming, he would have kept watch and would not have let his house be broken into. So you also must be ready, because the Son of Man will come at an hour when you do not expect him. Proverbs 11:24; Proverbs 11:25; Proverbs 19:17 24There is that scattereth, and yet increaseth; and there is that withholdeth more than is meet, but it tendeth to poverty. Proverbs 11:25 25The liberal soul shall be made fat: and he that watereth shall be watered also himself. 17He that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the LORD; and that which he hath given will he pay him again. Myspace.com/michaeldeehouse "Who then is the faithful and wise servant, whom the master has put in charge of the servants in his household to give them their food at the proper time? It will be good for that servant whose master finds him doing so when he returns. I tell you the truth, he will put him in charge of all his possessions. But suppose that servant is wicked and says to himself, 'My master is staying away a long time,' and he then begins to beat his fellow servants and to eat and drink with drunkards. The master of that servant will come on a day when he does not expect him and at an hour he is not aware of. He will cut him to pieces and assign him a place with the hypocrites, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. Matthew 4:23 23And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing all manner of sickness and all manner of disease among the people.
People were scared of Jesus because what if he didn't like them? What if he got mad at Him? What if He decided to take over and make them slaves? the problem with Jesus’ ways is we put Him in our shoes. Jesus does not have human thinking. The world sees the happiness of the Christian, but they get mad because they cannot have that happiness with their lifestyle. Know that Jesus greatly. Heaven is full of love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. Nothing demands anything unfavorable is demanded of you! That ought to make you leap for joy. A couple years ago I invited a friend to church. They said the roof would fall in on them. Then thy became deathly sick. Please pray for them. They need a job, having lost their earlier one. Ask Jesus to come in your life. I have a friend that isn’t answering his phone. His best friend is mad at him about that. He has caller I'd. So I’m going to call his answering machine and read, Romans 10:9-10 9That if you confess with your mouth, "Jesus is Lord," and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. 10For it is with your heart that you believe and are justified, and it is with your mouth that you confess and are saved.
after I read that, I said love you. we used to stay in trouble in school! Throwing paper airplanes back and forth, skipping lunch, cutting up… you name it! We partied together. We, with friends, got evicted from a motel. As a matter of fact, Class of 93 Salutatorian and the Most Likely to Succeed were in that group. Most Likely to Succeed was in a movie with Michael J Fox, Poison Ivey. Nothing but heavenly ascension matters. The frthr you are from the living God, the more miserable you are. I didn't know a lot about my family. I’ve told it before, but it's still amazing. That’s my great uncle was Jerry Lee and Bill Anderson’s partner, and my step dad was TV show Sister Sue’s cameraman. I learned about my great uncle when I was 24, stepdad 29, oh yeah, Papa, Elvis Presley's club hopping buddy 29! It's amazing what I went so long not knowing. My brother’s friend, Tricia Yearwood’s nephew is another singer connection. Please pray for my ministry. I can only mail out to chunks of addresses. That takes 4e to get them all. Last count was 415 adresses with forty-seven of them groups. Think of the car dealers on TV. The best car, most excellent buy, top purchase, finest acquisition, greatest bargain! Everything you want! When I was about eight and Mom was ailing for a car, a commercial came on and he told how there's NOBODY on God’s green earth with cheaper prices. I told her to go there. Why not??? She said that was just talk. It amazed me you could legally lie to millions of people! The same thing happened with my step mom. She was a college student at the time, really into National Geographic. In it, they had Noah’s ark. She said it was politics. The devil is the same way. The devil tells you what superb greatness you'll get by betraying Jesus Christ. Isa 31:1-9. The Chief Strength of the Egyptian Armies Lay in Their Cavalry. Isaiah 31:1-9 (New International Version)
Isaiah 31
Woe to Those Who Rely on Egypt
1 Woe to those who go down to Egypt for help,
who rely on horses,
who trust in the multitude of their chariots
and in the great strength of their horsemen,
but do not look to the Holy One of Israel,
or seek help from the LORD.
2 Yet he too is wise and can bring disaster;
he does not take back his words.
He will rise up against the house of the wicked,
against those who help evildoers.
3 But the Egyptians are men and not God;
their horses are flesh and not spirit.
When the LORD stretches out his hand,
he who helps will stumble,
he who is helped will fall;
both will perish together.
4 This is what the LORD says to me:
"As a lion growls,
a great lion over his prey—
and though a whole band of shepherds
is called together against him,
he is not frightened by their shouts
or disturbed by their clamor—
so the LORD Almighty will come down
to do battle on Mount Zion and on its heights.
5 Like birds hovering overhead,
the LORD Almighty will shield Jerusalem;
he will shield it and deliver it,
he will 'pass over' it and will rescue it."
6 Return to him you have so greatly revolted against, O Israelites. 7 For in that day every one of you will reject the idols of silver and gold your sinful hands have made.
8 "Assyria will fall by a sword that is not of man;
a sword, not of mortals, will devour them.
They will flee before the sword
and their young men will be put to forced labor.
9 Their stronghold will fall because of terror;
at sight of the battle standard their commanders will panic,"
declares the LORD,
whose fire is in Zion,
whose furnace is in Jerusalem.
1. and stay on horses, and trust in chariots-In their level and fertile plains horses could easily be used and fed (Ex 14:9; 1Ki 10:28). In hilly Palestine horses were not so easily had or available. The Jews were therefore the more eager to get Egyptian chariots as allies against the Assyrian cavalry. In Assyrian sculptures chariots are represented drawn by three horses, and with three men in them (see Isa 36:9; Ps 20:7; Da 9:13).
2. `hIsaiah 20:5, Isaiah 20:5, 2 Kin 18:21; Is 30:3-5; 31:1; Ezek 29:6, 7, Isaiah 20:5, jer 9:23, 24; 17:5; 1 Cor 3:21, Isaiah 30:2-5, Isaiah 30:2, Is 31:1; Jer 43:7, Isaiah 30:2, Is 8:19, Isaiah 30:2, Is 36:9, Isaiah 30:3, Is 20:5, 6; 36:6; Jer 42:18, 22, Isaiah 30:4, Is 19:11, Isaiah 30:5, Jer 2:36, Isaiah 30:5, Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3, Isaiah 30:7, Is 30:5, Isaiah 30:7, Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9, Isaiah 31:3, Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4, Isaiah 31:3, Is 36:9, Isaiah 31:3, Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34, Isaiah 31:3, Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14, Psalm 33:17, Psalm 33:17, Ps 20:7; 147:10; Prov 21:31,
3.
4. Isaiah 20:5; 2 Kings 18:21; Isaiah 30:3-5; Isaiah 31:1; Ezekiel 29:6; Ezekiel 29:7; Jeremiah 9:23; Jeremiah 9:24; Jeremiah 17:5; 1 Corinthians 3:21; Isaiah 30:2-5; Isaiah 30:2; Jeremiah 43:7; Isaiah 8:19; Isaiah 36:9; Isaiah 30:3; Isaiah 20:6; Isaiah 36:6; Jeremiah 42:18 (New American Standard Bible)
5.
6. Isaiah 20:5
7.
8.
9.
10. 5"Then they will be (A)dismayed and ashamed because of Cush their hope and Egypt their (B)boast.
11.
12.
13.
14. 1. Isaiah 20:5 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 30:3-5; 31:1; Ezek 29:6, 7
15. 2. Isaiah 20:5 : Jer 9:23, 24; 17:5; 1 Cor 3:21
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23. 2 Kings 18:21
24.
25.
26.
27.
28. 21"Now behold, you (A)rely on the staff of this crushed reed, even on Egypt; on which if a man leans, it will go into his hand and pierce it. So is Pharaoh king of Egypt to all who rely on him.
29.
30.
31.
32. 1. 2 Kings 18:21 : Is 30:2, 3, 7; Ezek 29:6, 7
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40. Isaiah 30:3-5
41.
42.
43.
44.
45. 3"Therefore the safety of Pharaoh will be (A)your shame
46. And the shelter in the shadow of Egypt, your humiliation.
47. 4"For (B)their princes are at Zoan
48. And their ambassadors arrive at Hanes.
49. 5"Everyone will be ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,
50. Who are not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."
51.
52.
53.
54. 1. Isaiah 30:3 : Is 20:5, 6; 36:6; Jer 42:18, 22
55. 2. Isaiah 30:4 : Is 19:11
56. 3. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36
57. 4. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65. Isaiah 31:1
66.
67.
68.
69. Isaiah 31
70. Help Not in Egypt but in God
71. 1Woe to those who go down to (A)Egypt for help
72. And (B)rely on horses,
73. And trust in chariots because they are many
74. And in horsemen because they are very strong,
75. But they do not look to the Holy One of Israel, nor seek the LORD!
76.
77.
78.
79. 1. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 30:2, 7; 36:6
80. 2. Isaiah 31:1 : Deut 17:16; Ps 20:7; 33:17; Is 2:7; 30:16
81. 3. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 9:13; Dan 9:13; Amos 5:4-8
82. 4. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 10:17; 43:15; Hos 11:9; Hab 1:12; 3:3
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90. Ezekiel 29:6
91.
92.
93.
94.
95. 6"Then all the inhabitants of Egypt will know that I am the LORD,
96. Because they have been only a (A)staff made of reed to the house of Israel.
97.
98.
99.
100. 1. Ezekiel 29:6 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 36:6
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108. Ezekiel 29:7
109.
110.
111.
112.
113. 7"When they took hold of you with the hand,
114. You (A)broke and tore all their hands;
115. And when they leaned on you,
116. You broke and made all their loins quake."
117.
118.
119.
120. 1. Ezekiel 29:7 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 36:6; Ezek 17:15-17
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128. Isaiah 20:5
129.
130.
131.
132. 5"Then they will be (A)dismayed and ashamed because of Cush their hope and Egypt their (B)boast.
133.
134.
135.
136. 1. Isaiah 20:5 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 30:3-5; 31:1; Ezek 29:6, 7
137. 2. Isaiah 20:5 : Jer 9:23, 24; 17:5; 1 Cor 3:21
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145. Jeremiah 9:23
146.
147.
148.
149. 23Thus says the LORD, "(A)Let not a wise man boast of his wisdom, and let not the (B)mighty man boast of his might, let not a rich man boast of his riches;
150.
151.
152.
153. 1. Jeremiah 9:23 : Eccl 9:11; Is 47:10; Ezek 28:3-7
154. 2. Jeremiah 9:23 : 1 Kin 20:10, 11; Is 10:8-12
155. 3. Jeremiah 9:23 : Job 31:24, 25; Ps 49:6-9
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163. Jeremiah 9:24
164.
165.
166.
167. 24but let him who boasts (A)boast of this, that he understands and knows Me, that I am the LORD who (B)exercises lovingkindness, justice and righteousness on earth; for I delight in these things," declares the LORD.
168.
169.
170.
171. 1. Jeremiah 9:24 : Ps 20:7; 44:8; Is 41:16; Jer 4:2; 1 Cor 1:31; 2 Cor 10:17; Gal 6:14
172. 2. Jeremiah 9:24 : Ex 34:6, 7; Ps 36:5, 7; 51:1
173. 3. Jeremiah 9:24 : Is 61:8; Mic 7:18
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181. Jeremiah 17:5
182.
183.
184.
185.
186. 5Thus says the LORD,
187. "(A)Cursed is the man who trusts in mankind
188. And makes (B)flesh his strength,
189. And whose heart turns away from the LORD.
190.
191.
192.
193. 1. Jeremiah 17:5 : Ps 146:3; Is 2:22; 30:1; Ezek 29:7
194. 2. Jeremiah 17:5 : 2 Chr 32:8; Is 31:3
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202. 1 Corinthians 3:21
203.
204.
205.
206.
207. 21So then (A)let no one boast in men For (B)all things belong to you,
208.
209.
210.
211. 1. 1 Corinthians 3:21 : 1 Cor 4:6
212. 2. 1 Corinthians 3:21 : Rom 8:32
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220. Isaiah 30:2-5
221.
222.
223.
224.
225. 2Who (A)proceed down to Egypt
226. Without (B)consulting Me,
227. To take refuge in the safety of Pharaoh
228. And to seek shelter in the shadow of Egypt!
229. 3"Therefore the safety of Pharaoh will be your shame
230. And the shelter in the shadow of Egypt, your humiliation.
231. 4"For their princes are at Zoan
232. And their ambassadors arrive at Hanes.
233. 5"Everyone will be ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,
234. Who are not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."
235.
236.
237.
238. 1. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 31:1; Jer 43:7
239. 2. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 8:19
240. 3. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 36:9
241. 4. Isaiah 30:3 : Is 20:5, 6; 36:6; Jer 42:18, 22
242. 5. Isaiah 30:4 : Is 19:11
243. 6. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36
244. 7. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252. Isaiah 30:2
253.
254.
255.
256.
257. 2Who (A)proceed down to Egypt
258. Without (B)consulting Me,
259. To take refuge in the safety of Pharaoh
260. And to seek shelter in the shadow of Egypt!
261.
262.
263.
264. 1. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 31:1; Jer 43:7
265. 2. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 8:19
266. 3. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 36:9
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274. Isaiah 31:1
275.
276.
277.
278. Isaiah 31
279. Help Not in Egypt but in God
280. 1Woe to those who go down to (A)Egypt for help
281. And (B)rely on horses,
282. And trust in chariots because they are many
283. And in horsemen because they are very strong,
284. But they do not look to the Holy One of Israel, nor seek the LORD!
285.
286.
287.
288. 1. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 30:2, 7; 36:6
289. 2. Isaiah 31:1 : Deut 17:16; Ps 20:7; 33:17; Is 2:7; 30:16
290. 3. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 9:13; Dan 9:13; Amos 5:4-8
291. 4. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 10:17; 43:15; Hos 11:9; Hab 1:12; 3:3
292.
293.
294.
295.
296.
297.
298.
299. Jeremiah 43:7
300.
301.
302.
303. 7and they entered the land of Egypt (for they did not obey the voice of the LORD) and went in as far as (A)Tahpanhes.
304.
305.
306.
307. 1. Jeremiah 43:7 : Jer 2:16; 44:1
308.
309.
310.
311.
312.
313.
314.
315. Isaiah 30:2
316.
317.
318.
319.
320. 2Who (A)proceed down to Egypt
321. Without (B)consulting Me,
322. To take refuge in the safety of Pharaoh
323. And to seek shelter in the shadow of Egypt!
324.
325.
326.
327. 1. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 31:1; Jer 43:7
328. 2. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 8:19
329. 3. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 36:9
330.
331.
332.
333.
334.
335.
336.
337. Isaiah 8:19
338.
339.
340.
341. 19When they say to you, "(A)Consult the mediums and the spiritists who whisper and mutter," should not a people (B)consult their God? Should they consult the dead on behalf of the living?
342.
343.
344.
345. 1. Isaiah 8:19 : Lev 20:6; 2 Kin 21:6; 23:24; Is 19:3; 29:4; 47:12, 13
346. 2. Isaiah 8:19 : Is 30:2; 45:11
347. 3. Isaiah 8:19 : 1 Sam 28:8-11
348.
349.
350.
351.
352.
353.
354.
355. Isaiah 30:2
356.
357.
358.
359.
360. 2Who (A)proceed down to Egypt
361. Without (B)consulting Me,
362. To take refuge in the safety of Pharaoh
363. And to seek shelter in the shadow of Egypt!
364.
365.
366.
367. 1. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 31:1; Jer 43:7
368. 2. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 8:19
369. 3. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 36:9
370.
371.
372.
373.
374.
375.
376.
377. Isaiah 36:9
378.
379.
380.
381. 9"How then can you repulse one official of the least of my master's servants and (A)rely on Egypt for chariots and for horsemen?
382.
383.
384.
385. 1. Isaiah 36:9 : Is 20:5; 30:2-5, 7; 31:3
386.
387.
388.
389.
390.
391.
392.
393. Isaiah 30:3
394.
395.
396.
397.
398. 3"Therefore the safety of Pharaoh will be (A)your shame
399. And the shelter in the shadow of Egypt, your humiliation.
400.
401.
402.
403. 1. Isaiah 30:3 : Is 20:5, 6; 36:6; Jer 42:18, 22
404.
405.
406.
407.
408.
409.
410.
411. Isaiah 20:5
412.
413.
414.
415. 5"Then they will be (A)dismayed and ashamed because of Cush their hope and Egypt their (B)boast.
416.
417.
418.
419. 1. Isaiah 20:5 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 30:3-5; 31:1; Ezek 29:6, 7
420. 2. Isaiah 20:5 : Jer 9:23, 24; 17:5; 1 Cor 3:21
421.
422.
423.
424.
425.
426.
427.
428. Isaiah 20:6
429.
430.
431.
432. 6"So the inhabitants of this coastland will say in that day, 'Behold, such is our hope, where we fled (A)for help to be delivered from the king of Assyria; and we, (B)how shall we escape?'"
433.
434.
435.
436. 1. Isaiah 20:6 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3; Jer 30:1, 7, 15-17; 31:1-3
437. 2. Isaiah 20:6 : Matt 23:33; 1 Thess 5:3; Heb 2:3
438.
439.
440.
441.
442.
443.
444.
445. Isaiah 36:6
446.
447.
448.
449. 6"Behold, you rely on the (A)staff of this crushed reed, even on Egypt, on which if a man leans, it will go into his hand and pierce it (B)So is Pharaoh king of Egypt to all who rely on him.
450.
451.
452.
453. 1. Isaiah 36:6 : Ezek 29:6, 7
454. 2. Isaiah 36:6 : Ps 146:3; Is 30:3, 5, 7
455.
456.
457.
458.
459.
460.
461.
462. Jeremiah 42:18
463.
464.
465.
466. 18For thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, "As My (A)anger and wrath have been poured out on the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so My wrath will be poured out on you when you enter Egypt And you will become a (B)curse, an object of horror, an imprecation and a reproach; and you will see this place no more."
467.
468.
469.
470. 1. Jeremiah 42:18 : 2 Chr 36:16-19; Jer 7:20; 33:5; 39:1-9
471. 2. Jeremiah 42:18 : Deut 29:21; Is 65:15; Jer 18:16; 24:9; 29:18; 44:12
472. 3. Jeremiah 42:18 : Jer 22:10, 27
473. Jeremiah 42:18; Jeremiah 42:22; Isaiah 30:4; Isaiah 19:11; Isaiah 30:5; Jeremiah 2:36; Isaiah 10:3; Isaiah 30:7; Isaiah 31:3; Job 9:13; Psalm 87:4; Psalm 89:10; Isaiah 51:9; Ezekiel 28:9; 2 Thessalonians 2:4; Isaiah 36:9; Isaiah 9:17; Jeremiah 15:6 (New American Standard Bible)
474.
475. Jeremiah 42:18
476.
477.
478.
479. 18For thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, "As My (A)anger and wrath have been poured out on the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so My wrath will be poured out on you when you enter Egypt And you will become a (B)curse, an object of horror, an imprecation and a reproach; and you will see this place no more."
480.
481.
482.
483. 1. Jeremiah 42:18 : 2 Chr 36:16-19; Jer 7:20; 33:5; 39:1-9
484. 2. Jeremiah 42:18 : Deut 29:21; Is 65:15; Jer 18:16; 24:9; 29:18; 44:12
485. 3. Jeremiah 42:18 : Jer 22:10, 27
486.
487.
488.
489.
490.
491.
492.
493. Jeremiah 42:22
494.
495.
496.
497. 22Therefore you should now clearly understand that you will (A)die by the sword, by famine and by pestilence, in the (B)place where you wish to go to reside.
498.
499.
500.
501. 1. Jeremiah 42:22 : Jer 43:11; Ezek 6:11
502. 2. Jeremiah 42:22 : Hos 9:6
503.
504.
505.
506.
507.
508.
509.
510. Isaiah 30:4
511.
512.
513.
514.
515. 4"For (A)their princes are at Zoan
516. And their ambassadors arrive at Hanes.
517.
518.
519.
520. 1. Isaiah 30:4 : Is 19:11
521.
522.
523.
524.
525.
526.
527.
528. Isaiah 19:11
529.
530.
531.
532.
533. 11The princes of (A)Zoan are mere fools;
534. The advice of Pharaoh's wisest advisers has become stupid
535. How can you men say to Pharaoh,
536. "I am a son of the (B)wise, a son of ancient kings"?
537.
538.
539.
540. 1. Isaiah 19:11 : Num 13:22; Ps 78:12, 43; Is 30:4
541. 2. Isaiah 19:11 : Gen 41:38, 39; 1 Kin 4:30; Acts 7:22
542.
543.
544.
545.
546.
547.
548.
549. Isaiah 30:5
550.
551.
552.
553.
554. 5"Everyone will be (A)ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,
555. Who are (B)not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."
556. The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme.
557.
558.
559. 1. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36
560. 2. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3
561.
562.
563.
564.
565.
566.
567.
568. Jeremiah 2:36
569.
570.
571.
572.
573. 36"Why do you (A)go around so much
574. Changing your way?
575. Also, (B)you will be put to shame by Egypt
576. As you were put to shame by Assyria.
577.
578.
579.
580. 1. Jeremiah 2:36 : Jer 2:23; 31:22; Hos 12:1
581. 2. Jeremiah 2:36 : Is 30:3
582. 3. Jeremiah 2:36 : 2 Chr 28:16, 20, 21
583.
584.
585.
586.
587.
588.
589.
590. Isaiah 30:5
591.
592.
593.
594.
595. 5"Everyone will be (A)ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,
596. Who are (B)not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."
597.
598.
599.
600. 1. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36
601. 2. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3
602.
603.
604.
605.
606.
607.
608.
609. Isaiah 10:3
610.
611.
612.
613.
614. 3Now (A)what will you do in the (B)day of punishment,
615. And in the devastation which will come from afar?
616. To whom will you flee for help?
617. And where will you leave your wealth?
618.
619.
620.
621. 1. Isaiah 10:3 : Job 31:14
622. 2. Isaiah 10:3 : Is 13:6; 26:14, 21; 29:6; Jer 9:9; Hos 9:7; Luke 19:44
623. 3. Isaiah 10:3 : Is 5:26
624. 4. Isaiah 10:3 : Is 20:6; 30:5, 7; 31:3
625.
626.
627.
628.
629.
630.
631.
632. Isaiah 30:7
633.
634.
635.
636.
637. 7Even Egypt, whose (A)help is vain and empty
638. Therefore, I have called her
639. "(B)Rahab who has been exterminated."
640.
641.
642.
643. 1. Isaiah 30:7 : Is 30:5
644. 2. Isaiah 30:7 : Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9
645.
646.
647.
648.
649.
650.
651.
652. Isaiah 31:3
653.
654.
655.
656.
657. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,
658. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;
659. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,
660. And he who helps will stumble
661. And he who is helped will fall,
662. And all of them will come to an end together.
663.
664.
665.
666. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4
667. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9
668. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34
669. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14
670.
671.
672.
673.
674.
675.
676.
677. Isaiah 30:7
678.
679.
680.
681.
682. 7Even Egypt, whose (A)help is vain and empty
683. Therefore, I have called her
684. "(B)Rahab who has been exterminated."
685.
686.
687.
688. 1. Isaiah 30:7 : Is 30:5
689. 2. Isaiah 30:7 : Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9
690.
691.
692.
693.
694.
695.
696.
697. Isaiah 30:5
698.
699.
700.
701.
702. 5"Everyone will be (A)ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,
703. Who are (B)not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."
704.
705.
706.
707. 1. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36
708. 2. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3
709.
710.
711.
712.
713.
714.
715.
716. Isaiah 30:7
717.
718.
719.
720.
721. 7Even Egypt, whose (A)help is vain and empty
722. Therefore, I have called her
723. "(B)Rahab who has been exterminated."
724.
725.
726.
727. 1. Isaiah 30:7 : Is 30:5
728. 2. Isaiah 30:7 : Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9
729.
730.
731.
732.
733.
734.
735.
736. Job 9:13
737.
738.
739.
740.
741.
742. 13"God will not turn back His anger;
743. Beneath Him crouch the helpers of (A)Rahab.
744.
745.
746.
747. 1. Job 9:13 : Job 26:12; Ps 89:10; Is 30:7; 51:9
748.
749.
750.
751.
752.
753.
754.
755. Psalm 87:4
756.
757.
758.
759.
760.
761. 4"I shall mention [a](A)Rahab and Babylon among those who know Me;
762. Behold, Philistia and (B)Tyre with Ethiopia:
763. 'This one was born there.'"
764.
765.
766.
767. 1. Psalm 87:4 I.e. Egypt
768.
769.
770.
771.
772. 1. Psalm 87:4 : Job 9:13; Ps 89:10; Is 19:23-25
773. 2. Psalm 87:4 : Ps 45:12
774. 3. Psalm 87:4 : Ps 68:31
775.
776.
777.
778.
779.
780.
781.
782. Psalm 89:10
783.
784.
785.
786.
787.
788. 10You Yourself crushed (A)Rahab like one who is slain;
789. You (B)scattered Your enemies with Your mighty arm.
790.
791.
792.
793. 1. Psalm 89:10 : Ps 87:4; Is 30:7; 51:9
794. 2. Psalm 89:10 : Ps 18:14; 68:1; 144:6
795.
796.
797.
798.
799.
800.
801.
802. Isaiah 51:9
803.
804.
805.
806.
807. 9(A)Awake, awake, put on strength, O arm of the LORD;
808. Awake as in the (B)days of old, the generations of long ago
809. Was it not You who cut Rahab in pieces,
810. Who pierced the dragon?
811.
812.
813.
814. 1. Isaiah 51:9 : Is 51:17; 52:1
815. 2. Isaiah 51:9 : Ex 6:6; Deut 4:34
816. 3. Isaiah 51:9 : Job 26:12; Ps 89:10; Is 30:7
817. 4. Isaiah 51:9 : Ps 74:13; Is 27:1
818.
819.
820.
821.
822.
823.
824.
825. Isaiah 31:3
826.
827.
828.
829.
830. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,
831. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;
832. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,
833. And he who helps will stumble
834. And he who is helped will fall,
835. And all of them will come to an end together.
836.
837.
838.
839. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4
840. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9
841. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34
842. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14
843.
844.
845.
846.
847.
848.
849.
850. Ezekiel 28:9
851.
852.
853.
854.
855. 9'Will you still say, "I am a god,"
856. In the presence of your slayer,
857. Though you are a man and not God,
858. In the hands of those who wound you?
859.
860.
861.
862.
863.
864.
865. 2 Thessalonians 2:4
866.
867.
868.
869.
870. 4who opposes and exalts himself above (A)every so-called god or object of worship, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, (B)displaying himself as being God.
871.
872.
873.
874. 1. 2 Thessalonians 2:4 : 1 Cor 8:5
875. 2. 2 Thessalonians 2:4 : Is 14:14; Ezek 28:2
876.
877.
878.
879.
880.
881.
882.
883. Isaiah 31:3
884.
885.
886.
887.
888. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,
889. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;
890. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,
891. And he who helps will stumble
892. And he who is helped will fall,
893. And all of them will come to an end together.
894.
895.
896.
897. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4
898. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9
899. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34
900. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14
901.
902.
903.
904.
905.
906.
907.
908. Isaiah 36:9
909.
910.
911.
912. 9"How then can you repulse one official of the least of my master's servants and (A)rely on Egypt for chariots and for horsemen?
913.
914.
915.
916. 1. Isaiah 36:9 : Is 20:5; 30:2-5, 7; 31:3
917.
918.
919.
920.
921.
922.
923.
924. Isaiah 31:3
925.
926.
927.
928.
929. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,
930. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;
931. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,
932. And he who helps will stumble
933. And he who is helped will fall,
934. And all of them will come to an end together.
935.
936.
937.
938. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4
939. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9
940. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34
941. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14
942.
943.
944.
945.
946.
947.
948.
949. Isaiah 9:17
950.
951.
952.
953.
954. 17Therefore the Lord does (A)not take pleasure in their young men,
955. (B)Nor does He have pity on their orphans or their widows;
956. For every one of them is godless and an evildoer,
957. And every mouth is speaking foolishness
958. In spite of all this, His anger does not turn away
959. And His hand is still stretched out.
960.
961.
962.
963. 1. Isaiah 9:17 : Jer 18:21; Amos 4:10; 8:13
964. 2. Isaiah 9:17 : Is 27:11
965. 3. Isaiah 9:17 : Is 10:6; 32:6
966. 4. Isaiah 9:17 : Is 1:4; 14:20; 31:2
967. 5. Isaiah 9:17 : Matt 12:34
968. 6. Isaiah 9:17 : Is 5:25
969.
970.
971.
972.
973.
974.
975.
976. Jeremiah 15:6
977.
978.
979.
980.
981. 6"You who have (A)forsaken Me," declares the LORD,
982. "You keep (B)going backward
983. So I will stretch out My hand against you and destroy you;
984. I am tired of relenting!
985.
986.
987.
988. 1. Jeremiah 15:6 : Jer 6:19; 8:9
989. 2. Jeremiah 15:6 : Is 1:4; Jer 7:24
990. 3. Jeremiah 15:6 : Jer 6:12; Zeph 1:4
991. 4. Jeremiah 15:6 : Jer 6:11; 7:16
992. Ezekiel 20:33; Ezekiel 20:34; Isaiah 31:3; Isaiah 30:5; Isaiah 30:7; Matthew 15:14; Psalm 33:17; Psalm 20:7; Psalm 147:10; Proverbs 21:31 (New American Standard Bible)
993.
994. Ezekiel 20:33
995.
996.
997.
998. God Will Restore Israel to Her Land
999. 33"As I live," declares the Lord GOD, "surely with a mighty hand and with an (A)outstretched arm and with wrath poured out, I shall be (B)king over you.
1000.
1001.
1002.
1003. 1. Ezekiel 20:33 : Jer 21:5
1004. 2. Ezekiel 20:33 : Jer 51:57
1005.
1006.
1007.
1008.
1009.
1010.
1011.
1012. Ezekiel 20:34
1013.
1014.
1015.
1016. 34"I will (A)bring you out from the peoples and gather you from the lands where you are scattered, with a mighty hand and with an outstretched arm and with (B)wrath poured out;
1017.
1018.
1019.
1020. 1. Ezekiel 20:34 : Is 27:12, 13; Ezek 20:38; 34:16
1021. 2. Ezekiel 20:34 : Jer 42:18; 44:6; Lam 2:4
1022.
1023.
1024.
1025.
1026.
1027.
1028.
1029. Isaiah 31:3
1030.
1031.
1032.
1033.
1034. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,
1035. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;
1036. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,
1037. And he who helps will stumble
1038. And he who is helped will fall,
1039. And all of them will come to an end together.
1040.
1041.
1042.
1043. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4
1044. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9
1045. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34
1046. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14
1047.
1048.
1049.
1050.
1051.
1052.
1053.
1054. Isaiah 30:5
1055.
1056.
1057.
1058.
1059. 5"Everyone will be (A)ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,
1060. Who are (B)not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."
1061.
1062.
1063.
1064. 1. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36
1065. 2. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3
1066.
1067.
1068.
1069.
1070.
1071.
1072.
1073. Isaiah 30:7
1074.
1075.
1076.
1077.
1078. 7Even Egypt, whose (A)help is vain and empty
1079. Therefore, I have called her
1080. "(B)Rahab who has been exterminated."
1081.
1082.
1083.
1084. 1. Isaiah 30:7 : Is 30:5
1085. 2. Isaiah 30:7 : Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9
1086.
1087.
1088.
1089.
1090.
1091.
1092.
1093. Matthew 15:14
1094.
1095.
1096.
1097.
1098. 14"Let them alone; (A)they are blind guides [a]of the blind And (B)if a blind man guides a blind man, both will fall into a pit."
1099.
1100.
1101.
1102. 1. Matthew 15:14 Later mss add of the blind
1103.
1104.
1105.
1106.
1107. 1. Matthew 15:14 : Matt 23:16, 24
1108. 2. Matthew 15:14 : Luke 6:39
1109.
1110.
1111.
1112.
1113.
1114.
1115.
1116. Psalm 33:17
1117.
1118.
1119.
1120.
1121.
1122. 17A (A)horse is a false hope for victory;
1123. Nor does it deliver anyone by its great strength.
1124.
1125.
1126.
1127. 1. Psalm 33:17 : Ps 20:7; 147:10; Prov 21:31
1128.
1129.
1130.
1131.
1132.
1133.
1134.
1135. Psalm 33:17
1136.
1137.
1138.
1139.
1140.
1141. 17A (A)horse is a false hope for victory;
1142. Nor does it deliver anyone by its great strength.
1143.
1144.
1145.
1146. 1. Psalm 33:17 : Ps 20:7; 147:10; Prov 21:31
1147.
1148.
1149.
1150.
1151.
1152.
1153.
1154. Psalm 20:7
1155.
1156.
1157.
1158.
1159. 7Some boast in chariots and some in (A)horses,
1160. But (B)we will boast in the name of the LORD, our God.
1161.
1162.
1163.
1164. 1. Psalm 20:7 : Ps 33:17
1165. 2. Psalm 20:7 : 2 Chr 32:8
1166.
1167.
1168.
1169.
1170.
1171.
1172.
1173. Psalm 147:10
1174.
1175.
1176.
1177.
1178.
1179. 10He does not delight in the strength of the (A)horse;
1180. He (B)does not take pleasure in the legs of a man.
1181.
1182.
1183.
1184. 1. Psalm 147:10 : Ps 33:17
1185. 2. Psalm 147:10 : 1 Sam 16:7
1186.
1187.
1188.
1189.
1190.
1191.
1192.
1193. Proverbs 21:31
1194.
1195.
1196.
1197.
1198.
1199. 31The (A)horse is prepared for the day of battle,
1200. But (B)victory belongs to the LORD.
1201.
1202.
1203.
1204. 1. Proverbs 21:31 : Ps 20:7; 33:17; Is 31:1
1205. 2. Proverbs 21:31 : Ps 3:8; Jer 3:23; 1 Cor 15:57
Exodus 14:9; 1 Kings 10:28 (New International Version)
Exodus 14:9
9 The Egyptians—all Pharaoh's horses and chariots, horsemen [a] and troops—pursued the Israelites and overtook them as they camped by the sea near Pi Hahiroth, opposite Baal Zephon.
1. Exodus 14:9 Or charioteers ; also in verses 17, 18, 23, 26 and 28
1 Kings 10:28
28 Solomon's horses were imported from Egypt [a] and from Kue [b]—the royal merchants purchased them from Kue.
1. 1 Kings 10:28 Or possibly Muzur , a region in Cilicia; also in verse 29
2. 1 Kings 10:28 Probably Cilicia
Matthew Henry's Concise Commentary
31:1-5 God will oppose the help sought from workers of iniquity. Sinners may be convicted of folly by plain and self-evident truths, which they cannot deny, but will not believe. There is no escaping the judgments of God; and evil pursues sinners. The Lord of hosts will come down to fight for Mount Zion. The Lion of the tribe of Judah will appear for the defence of his church. And as birds hovering over their young ones to protect them, with such compassion and affection will the Lord of hosts defend Jerusalem. He will so defend it, as to secure its safety.
Exodus 14:9; 1 Kings 10:28 (The Message)
The Message (MSG)
Exodus 14:9
8-9 God made Pharaoh king of Egypt stubborn, determined to chase the Israelites as they walked out on him without even looking back. The Egyptians gave chase and caught up with them where they had made camp by the sea—all Pharaoh's horse-drawn chariots and their riders, all his foot soldiers there at Pi Hahiroth opposite Baal Zephon.
The Message (MSG)
1 Kings 10:28
26-29 Solomon collected chariots and horses: fourteen hundred chariots and twelve thousand horses! He stabled them in the special chariot cities as well as in Jerusalem. The king made silver as common as rocks and cedar as common as the fig trees in the lowland hills. His horses were brought in from Egypt and Cilicia, specially acquired by the king's agents. Chariots from Egypt went for fifteen pounds of silver and a horse for about three and three-quarter pounds of silver. Solomon carried on a brisk horse-trading business with the Hittite and Aramean royal houses.
Chapter 31
This chapter is an abridgment of the foregoing chapter; the heads of it are much the same. Here is, I. A woe to those who, when the Assyrian army invaded them, trusted to the Egyptians, and not to God, for succour (v. 1-3). II. Assurance given of the care God would take of Jerusalem in that time of danger and distress (v. 4, 5). III. A call to repentance and reformation (v. 6, 7). IV. A prediction of the fall of the Assyrian army, and the fright which the Assyrian king should thereby be put into (v. 8, 9). Verses 1-5
This is the last of four chapters together that begin with woe; and they are all woes to the sinners that were found among the professing people of God, to the drunkards of Ephraim (ch. 28:1), to Ariel (ch. 29:1), to the rebellious children (ch. 30:1), and here to those that go down to Egypt for help; for men's relation to the church will not secure them from divine woes if they live in contempt of divine laws. Observe,
I. What the sin was that is here reproved, v. 1. 1. Idolizing the Egyptians, and making court to them, as if happy were the people that had the Egyptians for their friends and allies. They go down to Egypt for help in every exigence, as if the worshippers of false gods had a better interest in heaven and were more likely to have success of earth than the servants of the living and true God. That which invited them to Egypt was that the Egyptians had many chariots to accommodate them with, and horses and horsemen that were strong; and, if they could get a good body of forces thence into their service, they would think themselves able to deal with the king of Assyria and his numerous army. Their kings were forbidden to multiply horses and chariots, and were told of the folly of trusting to them (Ps. 20:7); but they think themselves wiser than their Bible. 2. Slighting the God of Israel: They look not to the Holy One of Israel, as if he were not worth taking notice of in this distress. They advise not with him, seek not his favour, nor are in any care to make him their friend.
II. The gross absurdity and folly of this sin. 1. They neglected one whom, if they would not hope in him, they had reason to fear. They do not seek the Lord, nor make their application to him, yet he also is wise, v. 2. They are solicitous to get the Egyptians into an alliance with them, because they have the reputation of a politic people; and is not God wise too? and would not infinite wisdom, engaged on their side, stand them in more stead than all the policies of Egypt? They are at the pains of going down to Egypt, a tedious journey, when they might have had better advice, and better help, by looking up to heaven, and would not. But, if they will not court God's wisdom to act for them, they shall find it act against them. He is wise, too wise for them to outwit, and he will bring evil upon those who thus affront him. He will not call back his words as men do (because they are fickle and foolish), but he will arise against the house of the evil-doers, this cabal of them that go down to Egypt; God will appear to their confusion, according to the word that he has spoken, and will oppose the help they think to bring in from the workers of iniquity. Some think the Egyptians made it one condition of their coming into an alliance with him that they should worship the gods of Egypt, and they consented to it, and therefore they are both called evil-doers and workers of iniquity. 2. They trusted to those who were unable to help them and would soon appear to be so, v. 3. Let them know that the Egyptians, whom they depend so much upon, are men and not God. As it is good for men to know themselves to be but men (Ps. 9:20), so it is good for us to consider that those we love and trust to are but men. They therefore can do nothing without God, nothing against him, nothing in comparison with him. They are men, and therefore fickle and foolish, mutable and mortal, here to day and gone to morrow; they are men, and therefore let us not make gods of them, by making them our hope and confidence, and expecting that in them which is to be found in God only; they are not God, they cannot do that for us which God can do, and will, if we trust in him. Let us not then neglect him, to seek to them; let us not forsake the rock of ages for broken reeds, nor the fountain of living waters for broken cisterns. The Egyptians indeed have horses that are very strong; but they are flesh, and not spirit, and therefore, strong as they are, they may be wearied with a long march, and become unserviceable, or be wounded and slain in battle, and leave their riders to be ridden over. Every one knows this, that the Egyptians are not God and their horses are not spirit; but those that seek to them for help do not consider it, else they would not put such confidence in them. Sinners may be convicted of folly by the plainest and most self-evident truths, which they cannot deny, but will not believe. 3. They would certainly be ruined with the Egyptians they trusted in, v. 3. When the Lord does but stretch out his hand how easily, how effectually, will he make them ashamed of their confidence in Egypt, and the Egyptians ashamed of the encouragement they gave them to trust in them; for he that helps and he that is helped shall fall together, and their mutual alliance shall prove their joint ruin. The Egyptians were shortly to be reckoned with, as appears by the burden of Egypt (ch. 19), and then those who fled to them for shelter and succour should fall with them; for there is no escaping the judgments of God. Evil pursues sinners, and it is just with God to make that creature a scourge to us which we make an idol of. 4. They took God's work out of his hands. They pretended a great deal of care to preserve Jerusalem, in advising to an alliance with Egypt; and, when others would not fall in with their measures, they pleaded self preservation, and went to Egypt themselves. Now the prophet here tells them that Jerusalem should be preserved without aid from Egypt and that those who tarried there should be safe when those who fled to Egypt should be ruined. Jerusalem was under God's protection, and therefore there was no occasion to put it under the protection of Egypt. But a practical distrust of God's all-sufficiency is at the bottom of all our sinful departures from him to the creature. The prophet tells them he had it from God's own mouth: Thus hath the Lord spoken to me. They might depend upon it, (1.) That God would appear against Jerusalem's enemies with the boldness of a lion over his prey, v. 4. When the lion comes out to seize his prey a multitude of shepherds come out against him; for it becomes neighbours to help one another when persons or goods are in danger. These shepherds dare not come near the lion; all they can do is to make a noise, and with that they think to frighten him off. But does he regard it? No: he will not be afraid of their voice, nor abase himself so far as to be in the least moved by it either to quit his prey or to make any more haste than otherwise he would do in seizing it. Thus will the Lord of hosts come down to fight for Mount Zion, with such an unshaken undaunted resolution not to be moved by any opposition; and he will as easily and irresistibly destroy the Assyrian army as a lion tears a lamb in pieces. Whoever appear against God, they are but like a multitude of poor simple shepherds shouting at a lion, who scorns to take notice of them or so much as to alter his pace for them. Surely those that have such a protector need not go to Egypt for help. (2.) That God would appear for Jerusalem's friends with the tenderness of a bird over her young, v. 5. God was ready to gather Jerusalem, as a hen gathers her brood under her wings (Mt. 23:37); but those that trusted to the Egyptians would not be gathered. As birds flying to their nests with all possible speed, when they see them attacked, and fluttering about their nests with all possible concern, hovering over their young ones to protect them and drive away the assailants, with such compassion and affection will the Lord of hosts defend Jerusalem. As an eagle stirs up her young when they are in danger, takes them and bears them on her wings, so the Lord led Israel out of Egypt (Deu. 32:11, 12); and he has now the same tender concern for them that he had then, so that they need not flee into Egypt again for shelter. Defending, he will deliver it; he will so defend it as to secure the continuance of its safety, not defend it for a while and abandon it at last, but defend it so that it shall not fall into the enemies' hand. I will defend this city to save it, ch. 37:35. Passing over he will preserve it; the word for passing over is used in this sense only here and Ex. 12:12, 23, 27, concerning the destroying angel's passing over the houses of the Israelites when he slew all the first-born of the Egyptians, to which story this passage refers. The Assyrian army was to be routed by a destroying angel, who should pass over Jerusalem, though that deserved to be destroyed, and draw his sword only against the besiegers. They shall be slain by the pestilence, but none of the besieged shall take the infection. Thus he will again pass over the houses of his people and secure them
1. For the Russian sect, see Filippians.
The Epistle to the Philippians (or simply Philippians) is a book included in the New Testament of the Bible. It is a letter from St. Paul to the church of Philippi. It is one of the authentic Pauline epistles, written c 62.[1]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Authorship
* 2 Background
* 3 Historical background
* 4 References
* 5 Sources
* 6 External links
[edit] Authorship
Pauline authorship of Philippians is "universally accepted" (Beare, p. 1) by virtually all Bible scholars, ancient and modern, with the exception of the kenosis passage in Philippians 2:5-11. According to some theologians this may have been a Christian hymn that Paul quoted.
[edit] Background
The letter was written to the church at Philippi, one of the earliest churches to be founded in Europe. They were very attached to Paul, just as he was very fond of them. Of all the churches, their contributions (which Paul gratefully acknowledges) are among the only he accepts. (Acts 20:33-35; 2 Cor. 11:7-12; 2 Thess. 3:8). The generosity of the Philippians comes out very conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). "This was a characteristic of the Macedonian missions, as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and beautifully prove. It is remarkable that the Macedonian converts were, as a class, very poor (2 Cor. 8:2), though the very first converts were of all classes (Acts 16); and the parallel facts, their poverty and their open-handed support of the great missionary and his work, are deeply harmonious. At the present day the missionary liberality of poor Christians is, in proportion, really greater than that of the rich" (Moule).
[edit] Historical background
The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their messenger, with contributions to meet the needs of Paul; and on his return Paul sent this letter with him. With this precious communication Epaphroditus sets out on his homeward journey. "The joy caused by his return, and the effect of this wonderful letter when first read in the church of Philippi, are hidden from us. And we may almost say that with this letter the church itself passes from our view. To-day, in silent meadows, quiet cattle browse among the ruins which mark the site of what was once the flourishing Roman colony of Philippi, the home of the most attractive church of the apostolic age. But the name and fame and spiritual influence of that church will never pass. To myriads of men and women in every age and nation the letter written in while he was under house arrest in Rome, and carried along the Egnatian Way by an obscure Christian messenger, has been a light divine and a cheerful guide along the most rugged paths of life".[2]
[edit] References
1. ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
2. ^ "Easton's Bible Dictionary: Philippians, Epistle to". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved on 2008-07-25.
[edit] Sources
* Beare, F. W. (1959). A Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians. Harper & Row; reprint, Harper’s New Testament Commentaries, ed. Henry Chadwick. (1987). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.
* Moule, H. C. G. (1981). The Epistle to the Philippians. Baker Book House.
Filippians
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For other uses, see Filippians (disambiguation).
Filippians or Philippians (Russian: Филипповцы) was a soglasiye (confession, literally, "agreement") of the Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") strain of Old Believers. They detached themselves from Pomortsy under the leadership of a "teacher" Filipp at the beginning of the 18th century. Because of the repressions of the government, they started practicing self-immolation as a means for the "preservation of the faith". In the second half of the 18th century their fanaticism decreased, and several other confessions were spun off: Aaronovtsy (Aaron's Confession), Shepherd's Confession (пастухово согласие), and many others.
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ew Testament
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This article is about part of the Bible. For the theological reformulation, see New Covenant.
The New Testament (Greek: Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Kainē Diathēkē) is the name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, the first such division being the much longer Hebrew Bible (also called by Jews Tanakh), known to Christians as the Old Testament. It is sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, or the New Covenant – which is the literal translation of the original Greek. The original texts were written in Koine Greek by various authors after c. AD 45 and before c. AD 140. Its 27 books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of Christianity, and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture. Although certain Christian sects differ as to which works are included in the New Testament, the vast majority of denominations have settled on the same twenty-seven book canon: it consists of the four narratives of Jesus Christ's ministry, called "Gospels"; a narrative of the Apostles' ministries in the early church, which is also a sequel to the third Gospel; twenty-one early letters, commonly called "epistles" in Biblical context, written by various authors and consisting mostly of Christian counsel and instruction; and an Apocalyptic prophecy, which is technically the twenty-second epistle. Although the traditional timeline of composition may have been taken into account by the shapers of the current New Testament format, it is not, nor was it meant to be, in strictly chronological order. Though Jesus speaks Aramaic in it, the New Testament (including the Gospels) was written in Greek because that was the lingua franca of the Roman Empire.
New Testament
* Matthew
* Mark
* Luke
* John
* Acts
* Romans
* 1 Corinthians
* 2 Corinthians
* Galatians
* Ephesians
* Philippians
* Colossians
* 1 Thessalonians
* 2 Thessalonians
* 1 Timothy
* 2 Timothy
* Titus
* Philemon
* Hebrews
* James
* 1 Peter
* 2 Peter
* 1 John
* 2 John
* 3 John
* Jude
* Revelation
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Contents
[hide]
* 1 Gospels
* 2 Acts
* 3 Pauline epistles
* 4 General or Catholic epistles
* 5 Revelation
* 6 Order
* 7 Apocrypha
* 8 Language
* 9 Etymology
* 10 Authorship
* 11 Date of composition
* 12 Canonization
* 13 Early manuscripts
* 14 Early Versions
o 14.1 Syriac Versions
o 14.2 Latin Versions
o 14.3 Coptic Versions
o 14.4 Versions in other languages
* 15 Additions
* 16 Authority
o 16.1 Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
o 16.2 Protestantism
+ 16.2.1 American Evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism
+ 16.2.2 American Mainline and liberal Protestantism
o 16.3 Messianic Judaism
* 17 See also
* 18 Notes
* 19 Further reading
* 20 External links
o 20.1 Source text of New Testament
+ 20.1.1 Greek
+ 20.1.2 Other languages
o 20.2 General references
o 20.3 Development and authorship
[edit] Gospels
Each of the Gospels narrates the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. The traditional author is listed after each entry. Modern scholarship differs on precisely by whom, when, or in what original form the various gospels were written.
* The Gospel of Matthew, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Matthew, son of Alphaeus.
* The Gospel of Mark, traditionally ascribed to Mark the Evangelist, who wrote down the recollections of the Apostle Simon Peter.
* The Gospel of Luke, traditionally ascribed to Luke, a physician and companion of the Apostle Paul.
* The Gospel of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee
The first three are commonly classified as the Synoptic Gospels. They contain very similar accounts of events in Jesus' life. The Gospel of John stands apart for its unique records of several miracles and sayings of Jesus, not found elsewhere.
See also: synoptic problem
[edit] Acts
The book of Acts, also termed Acts of the Apostles or Acts of the Holy Spirit, is a narrative of the Apostles' ministry after Christ's death and subsequent resurrection, which is also a sequel to the third Gospel. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and Luke share the same author.
* Acts, traditionally Luke.
[edit] Pauline epistles
The Pauline epistles (or Corpus Paulinum) constitute those epistles traditionally attributed to Paul. However the authorship of a number of the other epistles is sometimes disputed (see section on authorship below, and Authorship of the Pauline epistles).
* Epistle to the Romans
* First Epistle to the Corinthians
* Second Epistle to the Corinthians
* Epistle to the Galatians
* Epistle to the Ephesians
* Epistle to the Philippians
* Epistle to the Colossians
* First Epistle to the Thessalonians
* Second Epistle to the Thessalonians
* First Epistle to Timothy
* Second Epistle to Timothy
* Epistle to Titus
* Epistle to Philemon
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[edit] General or Catholic epistles
See main article: General epistles
Includes those Epistles written to the church at large (Catholic in this sense simply means universal).
* Epistle to the Hebrews, anonymous and unknown authorship
* Epistle of James, traditionally by James, brother of Jesus and Jude Thomas.
* First Epistle of Peter, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Simon, called Peter.
* Second Epistle of Peter, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Simon, called Peter.
* First Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee.
* Second Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee.
* Third Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee.
* Epistle of Jude, traditionally ascribed to Jude Thomas, brother of Jesus and James.
[edit] Revelation
The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation. The authorship is attributed either to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee or to John of Patmos. For a discussion of authorship see Authorship of the Johannine works.
Revelation is sometimes called The Apocalypse of John. It is also not read or used during church services by the Orthodox church.
See also: Apocalyptic literature, Bible prophecy
[edit] Order
The New Testament books are ordered differently in different Church Traditions. For example most Protestant Bibles follow the Roman Catholic order, but the Lutheran order is different. Outside the Western European Catholic/Protestant world there are different orders in the Slavonic, Syriac and Ethiopian Bibles.
[edit] Apocrypha
Main article: New Testament apocrypha
In ancient times there were dozens of Christian writings claiming Apostolic authorship, or for some other reason considered to have authority by some ancient churches, but which were not ultimately included in the 27-book New Testament canon. These works are considered "apocryphal", and are therefore referred to as the New Testament Apocrypha. It includes many writings unfavourable to the position of the orthodoxy, such as Gnostic writing. These apocryphal works are nevertheless important insofar as they provide an ancient context and setting for the composition of the canonical books. They also can help establish linguistic conventions common in the canonical texts. Examples of early apocryphal works are the Gospel of Thomas, the Epistle of Barnabas and the Epistle to the Laodiceans.
[edit] Language
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The common languages spoken by both Jews and Gentiles in the holy land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic, Koine Greek, and to a limited extent a colloquial dialect of Mishnaic Hebrew. However, the original text of the New Testament was most likely written in Koine Greek, the vernacular dialect in 1st century Roman provinces of the Eastern Mediterranean, and has since been widely translated into other languages, most notably, Latin, Syriac, and Coptic. However, some of the Church Fathers seem to imply that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and there is another contention that the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews wrote in Hebrew, which was translated into Greek by Luke. Neither view holds much support among contemporary scholars, who argue that the literary facets of Matthew and Hebrews suggest that they were composed directly in Greek, rather than being translated.
A very small minority of scholars consider the Aramaic version of the New Testament to be the original and believe the Greek is a translation (see Aramaic primacy).
[edit] Etymology
Some believe the English term New Testament ultimately comes from the Hebrew language. New Testament is taken from the Latin Novum Testamentum first coined by Tertullian. Some believe this in turn is a translation of the earlier Koine Greek Καινή Διαθήκη (pronounced in postclassical Greek as Keni Dhiathiki). This Greek term is found in the original Greek language of the New Testament, though commonly translated as new covenant, and found even earlier in the Greek translation of the Old Testament that is called the Septuagint. At Jeremiah 31:31, the Septuagint translated this term into Greek from the original Hebrew ברית חדשה (berit chadashah). The Hebrew term is usually also translated into English as new covenant.
As a result, some claim the term was first used by Early Christians to refer to the new covenant that was the basis for their relationship with God. About two centuries later at the time of Tertullian and Lactantius, the phrase was being used to designate a particular collection of books that some believed embodied this new covenant.
Tertullian, in the 2nd century, is the first currently known to use the terms novum testamentum/new testament and vetus testamentum/old testament. For example, in Against Marcion book 3 [1], chapter 14, he wrote:
This may be understood to be the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel
And in book 4 [2], chapter 6, he wrote:
For it is certain that the whole aim at which he has strenuously laboured even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets.
Lactantius, also in Latin, in the 3rd century, in his Divine Institutes, book 4, chapter 20 [3], wrote:
But all Scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: [Jer 31:31–32] "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord." ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.
The Vulgate translation, in the 5th century, used testamentum in 2nd Corinthians 3 [4]:
(6) Who also hath made us fit ministers of the new testament, not in the letter but in the spirit. For the letter killeth: but the spirit quickeneth. (Douay-Rheims)
(14) But their senses were made dull. For, until this present day, the selfsame veil, in the reading of the old testament, remaineth not taken away (because in Christ it is made void). (Douay-Rheims)
However, the more modern NRSV translates these verses from the Koine Greek as such:
(6) Who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life.
(14) But their minds were hardened. Indeed, to this very day, when they hear the reading of the old covenant, that same veil is still there, since only in Christ is it set aside.
Thus, it is common to translate using either of two English terms, testament and covenant, even though they are not synonymous.
[edit] Authorship
Main articles: Authorship of the Pauline epistles and Authorship of the Johannine works
The New Testament is a collection of works, and as such was written by multiple authors. The traditional view--that is, according to most orthodox Christians--is that all the books were written by Apostles (e.g. Matthew and Paul) or disciples working under their direction (e.g. Mark[1] and Luke[2]). However, in modern times, with the rise of rigorous historical inquiry and textual criticism, these traditional ascriptions have been rejected by some. While the traditional authors have been listed above, the modern critical view is discussed herein.
Seven of the epistles of Paul are generally accepted by most modern scholars as authentic; these undisputed letters include Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Raymond E. Brown has this to say about Colossians: "At the present moment about 60 percent of critical scholarship holds that Paul did not write the letter" (An Introduction, p. 610; cited by earlychristianwritings.com). Liberal scholars usually question Pauline authorship for any other epistle, although there are conservative Christian scholars who accept the traditional ascriptions. However, almost no current mainstream scholars, Christian or otherwise, hold that Paul wrote Hebrews. In fact, questions about the authorship of Hebrews go back at least to the 3rd century ecclesiastical writer Caius, who attributed only thirteen epistles to Paul (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., 6.20.3ff.). A small minority of scholars hypothesize Hebrews may have been written by one of Paul's close associates, such as Barnabas, Silas, or Luke, given that the themes therein seemed to them as largely Pauline.
The authorship of all non-Pauline books have been disputed in recent times. Ascriptions are largely polarized between Christian and non-Christian experts, making any sort of scholarly consensus all but impossible. Even majority views are unclear.
The Synoptic Gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke, unlike the other New Testament works, have a unique interrelationship. The dominant view among non-theologian scholars is the Two-Source Hypothesis. This hypothesis proposes that both Matthew and Luke drew significantly upon the Gospel of Mark and another common source, known as the "Q Source" (Q is derived from Quelle, the German word for "source"). However, the nature and even existence of Q is speculative, and scholars have proposed variants on the hypothesis which redefine or exclude it. Most pro-Q scholars believe that it was a single written document, while a few contest that "Q" was actually a number of documents or oral traditions. If it was a documentary source, no information about its author or authors can be obtained from the resources currently available. The traditional view supposes that Matthew was written first, and Mark and Luke drew from it and the second chronological work; and some scholars have attempted to use their modern methods to confirm the idea. An even smaller group of scholars espouse Lukan priority.
Modern scholars are skeptical about authorship claims for noncanonical books, such as the Nag Hammadi corpus discovered in Egypt in 1945. This corpus of fifty-two Coptic books, dated to about 350–400, includes gospels in the names of Thomas, Philip, James, John, and many others. Like almost all ancient works, they represent copies rather than original texts. None of the original texts has been discovered, and scholars argue about the dating of the originals. Suggested dates vary from as early as 50 to as late as the late second century for the gnostics. (See Gospel of Thomas and New Testament Apocrypha.)
To summarize, the only books for which there are solid authorship consensuses among modern critical scholars are the Pauline epistiles mentioned above, which are universally regarded as authentic, and Hebrews, which is nearly always rejected. The remaining nineteen books remain in dispute, some holding to the traditional view, and others regarding them as anonymous or pseudonymic.
[edit] Date of composition
According to tradition, the earliest of the books were the letters of Paul, and the last books to be written are those attributed to John, who is traditionally said to have lived to a very old age, perhaps dying as late as 100, although this is often disputed. Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 185, stated that the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were written while Peter and Paul were preaching in Rome, which would be in the 60s, and Luke was written some time later.
Most secular scholars agree on the dating of the majority of the New Testament, except for the epistles and books that they consider to be pseudepigraphical (i.e., those thought not to be written by their traditional authors). For the Gospels they tend to date Mark no earlier than 65 and no later than 75. Matthew is dated between 70 and 85. Luke is usually placed within 80 to 95. However various scholars disagree with this as Luke indicates in the book of Acts that he has already written the Gospel of Luke prior to writing the introduction to Acts. Acts is written in a journal form indicating that it may have been written during Paul's journeys which it documents. That would put Acts as early as the 60's and the Gospel of Luke earlier than that. This then could push back Mark into the late 50's if one believes that Mark is the source of some of Luke's material. Early church fathers seem to support parts of that. For instance Irenaeus claims "Luke recorded the teachings of Paul, after the deaths of Peter and Paul. He wrote after the Hebrew Matthew, at around the same time as Mark, and before John." Clement though claims: "Luke was written before Mark and John and at the same time as Matthew. " When taken with Clement's writing on Mark, this means that Peter and Paul were alive at the time that Luke was written. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was First Thessalonians, an epistle of Paul, written probably in 51, or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing. Of the pseudepigraphical epistles, Christian scholars tend to place them somewhere between 70 and 150, with Second Peter usually being the latest.
In the 1830s German scholars of the Tübingen school dated the books as late as the third century, but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts and fragments, not including some of the later writings, dating as far back as 125 (notably Papyrus 52) has called such late dating into question. Additionally, a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore, some of the books of the New Testament were at least in a first-draft stage, though there is negligible evidence in these quotes or among biblical manuscripts for the existence of different early drafts. Other books were probably not completed until later, if we assume they must have been quoted by Clement or Polycarp. There are many minor discrepancies between manuscripts (largely spelling or grammatical differences).
[edit] Canonization
Main article: Development of the New Testament canon
The process of canonization was complex and lengthy. It was characterized by a compilation of books that Christians found inspiring in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament.
Contrary to popular misconception, the New Testament canon was not summarily decided in large, bureaucratic Church council meetings, but rather developed very slowly over many centuries.
Thus, McDonald states: [3]
Although a number of Christians have thought that church councils determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons, a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities.
Similarly, from Patzia: [4]
It appears that the books that finally were canonized are those that enjoyed a special status and were utilized both frequently and universally by the church.
However, this is not to say that no councils touched the issue of the canon. Some of these include the Council of Trent (also called the Tridentine Council) of 1546 for Roman Catholicism (by vote: 24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain),[5] the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Eastern Orthodoxy. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, they were only reaffirming the existing canon which was reached by mutual agreement over many centuries--they were just making it official.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council."
In the first three centuries of the Christian Church, Early Christianity, there seems not to have been a New Testament canon that was complete and universally recognized.
One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion, c. 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (Gospel of Marcion) and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His unorthodox canon was rejected by a majority of Christians, as was he and his theology, Marcionism. Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament (1914)[5] argued that the orthodox Church at this time was largely an Old Testament Church (one that "follows the Testament of the Creator-God") without a New Testament canon and that it gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion. [6]
The Muratorian fragment, dated at between 170 (based on an internal reference to Pope Pius I and arguments put forth by Bruce Metzger) and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the Anchor Bible Dictionary), provides the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream (that is, not Marcionite) Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.
The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written c. 180 AD It was a claim made by Bishop Irenaeus in his polemic Against the Heresies, for example III.XI.8: "It is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the Church is scattered throughout all the world, and the “pillar and ground” of the Church is the Gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh."
At least, then, the books considered to be authoritative included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian (all 2nd century) held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament Apocrypha.
Eusebius, c. 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his Ecclesiastical History Book 3, Chapter XXV:
"1... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the Gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles... the epistles of Paul... the epistle of John... the epistle of Peter... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Apocalypse of John, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings."
"3 Among the disputed writings [Antilegomena], which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected [Kirsopp Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter, and in addition to these the extant epistle of Barnabas, and the so-called Teachings of the Apostles; and besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the Gospel according to the Hebrews... And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books."
"6... such books as the Gospels of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, or of any others besides them, and the Acts of Andrew and John and the other apostles... they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious."
Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the Church Fathers, we know that it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." EH 4.29.6 mentions the Diatessaron: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the Gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle [Paul], in order to improve their style."[7]
The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, Festal Letter 39. Also cited is the Council of Rome, but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397. Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the 16th century, theologian and reformer Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation. Even today, German-language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than their traditional order for other Christians. Due to the fact that some of the recognized Books of the Holy Scripture were having their canonicity questioned by Protestants in the 16th century, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional canon (that is for Catholics the canon of the Council of Rome) of the Scripture as a dogma of the Catholic Church.
[edit] Early manuscripts
Rossano Gospels, 6th century, a representative of Byzantine text
Rossano Gospels, 6th century, a representative of Byzantine text
The early New Testament manuscripts can be classified into certain major families or types of text. A "text-type" is the name given to a family of texts with a common ancestor. It must be noted that many early manuscripts can be composed of several different text-types. For example, Codex Washingtonianus consists of only the four gospels, and yet, different parts are written in different text-types. Four distinctive New Testament text-types have been defined:
The Alexandrian text-type is usually considered the best and most faithful at preserving the original; it is usually brief and austere. The main examples are the Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and Bodmer Papyri.
The Western text-type has a fondness for paraphrase and is generally the longest. Most significant is the Western version of Acts, which is 10% longer. The main examples are the Codex Bezae, Codex Claromontanus, Codex Washingtonianus, Old Latin versions (prior to the Vulgate), and quotes by Marcion, Tatian, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian.
The Caesarean text-type is a mixture of Western and Alexandrian types and is found in the Chester Beatty Papyri, in Codex Koridethi, and is quoted by Eusebius, Cyril of Jerusalem and Armenians.
The Byzantine text-type is the textform that is contained in a majority of the extant manuscripts and thus is often called the "Majority Text." The origin of this text is debated among scholars. Some scholars, observing that few Byzantine readings exist among early uncial manuscript witnesses, contend that the text formed late and contains conflated readings. Other scholars look to the shear number of consistent witnesses to the Byzantine textform, and the existence of readings which parallel the Byzantine textform in very early translations, as evidence that the Byzantine textform is probably the closest text to that originally penned by the New Testament authors. The Byzantine textform can be found in the Gospels of Codex Alexandrinus, later uncial texts and most minuscule texts. A variant of the Byzantine text, called the Textus Receptus, is the basis of Erasmus's printed Greek New Testament of 1516, which became the basis of the 1611 King James Version of the English New Testament.
Most modern English versions of the New Testament are based on critical reconstructions of the Greek text, such as the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament or Nestle-Alands' Novum Testamentum Graece, which have a pronounced Alexandrian character.
[edit] Early Versions
The first translations (usually called "versions") of the New Testament were made in the end of 2nd century into Syriac, Latin, and Coptic languages. These three versions were made directly from Greek, before a revision of Greek text, and they are always cited in modern critical apparatus.
[edit] Syriac Versions
Rabbula Gospels, Eusebian Canons
Rabbula Gospels, Eusebian Canons
Syriac was spoken in Syria, and Mesopotamia, and with dialect i Palestine, where it was known as Aramaic. Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us. It is possible some translations were lost.
Tatian, the Syrian, about A.D. 170, prepared Diatessaron, a harmony of the four Gospels i Rome. After his return to Syria he translated it into Syriac. Probably it was first translation part of New Testament from Greek into other language.
Since 19th century we have evidences supported existence Old Syriac Version about the same time as the Diatessaron, or even a little earlier (Curetonianus, Syrus Sinaiticus from 5th or 4th century). They contain text of the four Gospels. The text of Acts and the Pauline Epistles has not survived to our time. We know only citations made by Eastern fathers. Old Syriac version is a representative of the Western text-type. The Peshitta version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century. It contains only 22 books (2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation were not translated).
Philoxenian, probably was produced in 508 for Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabung.[8]
[edit] Latin Versions
The Gospels were translated into Latin during the last quarter of the second century in North Africa (Afra). Not much later arose European Latin translation (Itala). The African Latin manuscripts are not numerous (Itala about 80 mss.). Old Latin Verions support the Western type of text.
Because of ununiformed text Old Latin versions, interpolations, and corruption Jerome prepared another translation - Vulgate. In fact it was only revision of Itala, and only Gospels were revised precisely. We have 8 000 copies of Vulgate.
In the order of the versions Latin version usually stands at the beginning in the apparatus.
[edit] Coptic Versions
Main article: Coptic versions of the Bible
The Coptic language was used in several dialects: Bohairic (northern dialect), Fayyumic, Sahidic (southern dialect), Akhmimic, and others. First translation was made in end of 2d century into Sahidic dialect (copsa). This translation was a representative of Alexandrian text-type.
Bofairic translation was made a little later, because Greek language was more influenced in a North, than in a South. Probably it was made in the beginning of 3th century. It was very literally translation, a lot of Greek words, and even some grammar forms (f.e. syntactic construction μεν — δε) were incorporated to this translation. For this reason, bohairic translation is more helpful in reconstruction early Greek text, than any other ancient translation.[9]
[edit] Versions in other languages
After A.D. 300 were made other translations into Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Gothic, Old Curch Slavonic, and other languages (Arabian, Nubian, Persian, Soghdian). Armenian, Georgian, and Ethiopic are often cited in critical apparatus, but Gothic, and Slavonic are cited very rarely.
[edit] Additions
Over the years, there have been a number of possible additions to the original text, such as:
* Matt 16:2b-3
* Mark 16:9-20
* Luke 22:19b-20,43-44
* John 5:4
* John 7:53-8:11
* 1 John 5:7b–8a
In addition, there are a large number of variant readings, see Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (1994) for details.
[edit] Authority
All Christian groups respect the New Testament, but they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration, which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of Biblical inerrancy and/or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:
* Infallibility relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in matters of doctrine.
* Inerrancy relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in factual assertions (including historical and scientific assertions).
* Authoritativeness relates to the correctness of the Bible in questions of practice in morality.
Christian scholars such as Professor Peter Stoner see the Bible having compelling and detailed fulfilled Bible prophecy and argue for the Bible's inspiration. This is argued to show that the Bible is authoritative, since it is argued that only God knows the future. A common objection in the West regarding this matter is that the burden of proof is on miracles, which, by Occam's Razor, should only be considered when all ordinary explanations fail. C. S. Lewis, Norman Geisler, William Lane Craig, and Christians who engage in Christian apologetics have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible. [6] [7] [8][9][10]PDF (133 KiB) [11]. On the other hand, in the West those who do not believe in miracles often use the arguments of David Hume, Benedict de Spinoza, or the arguments of Deism. [12][13][14].
All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether literal history, allegory or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.
[edit] Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
For the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, there are two strands of revelation, the Bible, and the (rest of the) Apostolic Tradition. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. In Catholic terminology the Teaching Office is called the Magisterium; in Orthodox terminology the authentic interpretation of scripture and tradition is limited, in the final analysis, to the Canon Law of the Ecumenical councils. Both sources of revelation are considered necessary for proper understanding of the tenets of the faith. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992):
§ 83: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.
§ 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.
[edit] Protestantism
Following the doctrine of sola scriptura, Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reevaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in Liberal Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of Scripture vary widely.
[edit] American Evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism
Certain American conservatives, fundamentalists and evangelicals believe that the Scriptures are both human and divine in origin: human in their manner of composition, but divine in that their source is God, the Holy Spirit, who governed the writers of scripture in such a way that they recorded nothing at all contrary to the truth. Fundamentalists accept the enduring authority and impugnity of a prescientific interpretation of the Bible. In the United States this particularly applies to issues such as the ordination of women, abortion, and homosexuality. However, although American evangelicals are overwhelmingly opposed to such things, other evangelicals are increasingly willing to consider that the views of the biblical authors may have been culturally conditioned, and they may even argue that there is room for change along with cultural norms and scientific advancements. Both fundamentalists and evangelicals profess belief in the inerrancy of the Bible. In the US the fundamentalists' stronger emphasis on literal interpretation has led to the rejection of evolution, which contradicts the doctrine of Creationism.
Evangelicals, on the other hand, tend to avoid interpretations of the Bible that would directly contradict generally accepted scientific assertions of fact. They do not impute error to biblical authors, but rather entertain various theories of literary intent which might give credibility to human progress in knowledge of the world, while still accepting the divine inspiration of the scriptures.
Within the US, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) is an influential statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God's saving grace in individual lives."
Critics of such a position point out that there are many statements that Jesus makes in the Gospels or that Paul makes in his epistles, even to the point of making them commands, which are not taken as commands by most advocates of Biblical inerrancy. Examples of this are Jesus' command to the disciples to sell all they have and give the money to the poor so as to gain treasure in the Kingdom of Heaven (Mark 10:21), or Paul's calls to imitate him in celibacy (1 Cor 7:8). Other sections of the Bible, such as the second half of John chapter six, where Jesus commands that the disciples eat his flesh and drink his blood, are interpreted by most adherents of Biblical Inerrancy as symbolic language rather than literally, as might be expected from the statements of the doctrine. Supporters of Biblical Inerrancy generally argue that these passages are intended to be symbolic, and that their symbolic nature can be seen directly in the text, thus preserving the doctrine.
[edit] American Mainline and liberal Protestantism
Mainline American Protestant denominations, including the United Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church USA, The Episcopal Church, and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching—from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the Scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly. For example, ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches, abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person, and homosexuality is increasingly regarded as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.
Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail."
Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their Evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of Scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for social justice. The message of personal salvation is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament's Golden Rule admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit" of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.
There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as Christian anarchists.
[edit] Messianic Judaism
Messianic Judaism generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants.
[edit] See also
Bible portal
* Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible
* Gnosticism and the New Testament
* List of Gospels
* Expounding of the Law
* Bible translations
* Biblical canon
* Books of the Bible
* New Testament apocrypha
* New Testament view on Jesus' life
* Old Testament
* Two-source hypothesis
* Authorship of the Johannine works
* Authorship of the Pauline epistles
* Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture
* Category:New Testament books
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Papias (c. 130) gives the perhaps earliest tradition of Mark's Apostolic connection: "This also the presbyter said: Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's discourses, so that Mark committed no error while he thus wrote some things as he remembered them. For he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of the thing which he had heard, and not to state any of them falsely" (cited by Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, 3.39.21ff.).
2. ^ Irenaeus wrote about AD 180, "Luke, the attendant of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel which Paul had declared" (cited by Eusebius, Hist. eccl., 5.8.3ff.).
3. ^ McDonald, Lee M. The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1995. pp.116
4. ^ Patzia, Arthur. The Making of the New Testament. Downers Grove: IVP, 1995. pp.104
5. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (March 13, 1997). The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford University Press, p. 246. “"Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree (De Canonicis Scripturis) in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema."”
6. ^ Palmer, 1881. Edwin Palmer, The Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232
7. ^ Palmer, 1881. Edwin Palmer, The Greek Testament . London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232
8. ^ Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1977, pp. 3-98.
9. ^ Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1977, pp. 99-152.
[edit] Further reading
* A.H. McNeile, An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament, second edition revised New Testament Introduction, D. Guthrie, Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester 1976.
* Raymond E. Brown: An Introduction to the New Testament (ISBN 0-385-24767-2)
* Burton L. Mack: Who Wrote the New Testament?, Harper, 1996
* Detlev Dormeyer: The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity (English translation), Sheffield 1998
* Randel McCraw Helms: Who Wrote the Gospels?
* H.C. Thiessen, Introduction to the New Testament, Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids 1976.
* Theodor Zahn, Introduction to the New Testament, English translation, Edinburgh, 1910.
* Interpreting the New Testament. An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of N.T. Exegesis, H. Conzelmann and A. Lindemann, translated by S.S. Schatzmann, Hendrickson Publishers. Peabody 1988.
[edit] External links
The external links in this article may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines.
Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links. (July 2007)
[edit] Source text of New Testament
* The New Testament Gateway - Dr. Mark Goodacre.
* Latin harmony of the Four Gospels: «Live» of Jesus (1)
* Latin harmony of the Four Gospels: «Live» of Jesus (2)
* N.T. Ancient Manuscripts: Partial New Testament Papyri
* New Testament - King James Version with Greek and Encyclopedic links
* Vatican Resource Library - Vatican Library Archives
* Complete Text of the New Testament, 1611 King James Version
* Tessarôn Euaggeliôn Sumphônia - The Greek harmony of the Gospels
* Searchable New Testament Greek Lexicon
[edit] Greek
Wikisource
Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article:
New Testament
* New Testament Byzantine Greek Original Side by side with the English (King James) and Russian (Synodal) translation - Commentary by the Greek Fathers - Icons from Athos Holy Mountain
* New Testament, Greek Polytonic Text according to Ecumenical Patriarchate
* Greek New Testament text (searchable only; no downloads) with lexical aids
* Greek New Testament This is a Greek text of the New Testament, specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants]
* Greek-English interlinear of the Old & New Testaments - in PDF format.
* Palmer, Edwin Palmer, ΚΑΙΝΗ ΔΙΑΘΗΚΗ. The Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232
[edit] Other languages
* Lutheran Church China: - Has the only Traditional Chinese New Testament (1880 A.D.) based on the King James Version.
* Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions at GospelCom.net
* Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions at Biola University
* Online Bible at GospelHall.org - King James Version, English Standard Version, Bible in Basic English, Darby Translation
* King James version of New Testament at Project Gutenberg
* Full text of the New Testament in English, Arabic, Amharic, Hebrew and French
* Serbian New Testament — full text
* The New Testament at romansonline.com
* The Complete Sayings of Christ The complete collection of Christ's sayings from the New Testament --- in parallel English and Latin.
* Online New Testament in Turkish.
* Holybible providing full text Bibles in Korean, Chinese, English, and Azerbaycan.
[edit] General references
* New Testament Gateway, sponsored by Duke University
* New Testament Books
* Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy
* Overview of Inerrancy
* Catechism of the Catholic Church
* Ask the Pastor - a Lutheran discussion of the dates of writing, compiling, and setting of the canon
* New Testament Alterations from the Order of Nazorean Essenes (Budhist / Gnostic Chritian source)
* Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament
* Catholic Encyclopedia: New Testament
* Evangelical Textual Criticism Blog
* Dating the NT - list of opinions of scholars
* Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library
[edit] Development and authorship
* http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_ntb1.htm
* http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Trowbridge/NT_Hist.htm
* Synoptic Problem Home Page
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Gospels: Jesus Christ, views: Christian, Historical, New Testament
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Holy Spirit
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The Descent of the Holy Spirit in a 15th century illuminated manuscript. Musée Condé, Chantilly. The Holy Spirit is depicted as a dove in the topmost area of painting.
The Descent of the Holy Spirit in a 15th century illuminated manuscript. Musée Condé, Chantilly. The Holy Spirit is depicted as a dove in the topmost area of painting.
In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance of God; that is, the Spirit is considered to act in concert with and share an essential nature with God the Father and God the Son (Jesus Christ). The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or pneumatology, was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed. For this reason, there is greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son (Christology) and of the Father. Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as the "Third Person" of the Triune God - with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person. There are also distinct understandings of the Holy Spirit by non-Trinitarian groups and some non-Christian groups who use the term as well.
Contents
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* 1 Doctrine
o 1.1 New Testament background
o 1.2 Mainstream Christianity
* 2 Particular Christian views
o 2.1 Roman Catholicism
o 2.2 Pentecostalism
o 2.3 Orthodoxy
o 2.4 Dispensationalism
o 2.5 The Churches of God Movement
o 2.6 Third Wave
o 2.7 Branch Davidian, Some Messianics, and others
* 3 "Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"
* 4 Gifts and fruits
o 4.1 Fruit of the Spirit
o 4.2 Gifts and filling of the Spirit
* 5 Depiction in art
* 6 Non-Trinitarian Christian views
o 6.1 Latter-day Saint views
o 6.2 Jehovah's Witness views
o 6.3 Oneness Pentecostalism
o 6.4 Unity Church views
o 6.5 Roman Catholic views on Unitarianism
* 7 Non-Christian views
o 7.1 Bahá'í Faith
o 7.2 Islam
o 7.3 Judaism
o 7.4 Mandaeanism
o 7.5 Rastafarian view
o 7.6 Sant Mat
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 10 External links
[edit] Doctrine
[edit] New Testament background
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It is held in common Christian belief that the Holy Spirit has been with this world from the beginning of creation. This view is taken from Genesis 1, where it is written that "the spirit of God was floating over the waters [of creation]" - indicating the Holy Spirit; and from 1 Samuel 11:6, where it is written that "the Spirit of God came upon Saul when he heard those tidings, and his anger was kindled greatly."
The first overt appearance of the Holy Spirit in Christian theology is in the words of Jesus, speaking to his disciples (John 14:15-18) shortly before his death. He characterizes the Holy Spirit to them as the 'Spirit of Truth'. Chronologically though, the Holy Spirit makes a first appearance at the beginning of Jesus' ministry when he is baptized in the Jordan River by John the Baptist (Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-22, John 1:31-33). In these accounts, the incorporeal Holy Spirit is described as descending upon Jesus 'like' or 'as' a dove.
In John's Gospel, emphasis is placed not upon what the Holy Spirit did for Jesus, but upon Jesus giving the Spirit to his disciples. This "Higher" Christology sees Jesus as a sacrificial lamb, and as coming among mankind in order to grant the Spirit of God to humanity.
Although the language used to describe Jesus' receiving the Spirit in John's Gospel is parallel to the accounts in the other three Gospels, John relates this with the aim of showing that Jesus is specially in possession of the Spirit for the purpose of granting the Spirit to his followers, uniting them with himself, and in himself also uniting them with the Father. (See Raymond Brown, "The Gospel According to John", chapter on Pneumatology). In John, the gift of the Spirit is equivalent to eternal life, knowledge of God, power to obey, and communion with one another and with the Father.
[edit] Mainstream Christianity
Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to lead a Christian life. The Holy Spirit dwells inside every Christian, each one's body being his temple (1 Corinthians 3:16). The Holy Spirit is depicted as a 'Counselor' or 'Helper' (paracletus in Latin, derived from Greek), guiding people in the way of the truth. The Holy Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the Fruit of the Holy Spirit. A list of "spiritual gifts" that may be bestowed include the charismatic gifts of prophecy, tongues, healing, and knowledge. Christians holding a view known as cessationism believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain spiritual gifts are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy (see, e.g. Romans 12:6-8). The experience of the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as being anointed.
Jesus describes the Holy Spirit as the promised "Advocate" (i.e. "strengthener", "fortifier") in John 14:26. After his resurrection, Christ told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Spirit", and would receive power from this event (Acts 1:4-8), a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first Pentecost, Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native language.
The Holy Spirit's existence is affirmed in the Apostles Creed and responsibility for the Virgin Birth of Jesus is asserted. In the Nicene Creed (an extensive elaboration of the Apostles Creed), the Holy Spirit is further affirmed to proceed from either one or both of the other members of the Trinity (God the Father and God the Son) (see filioque controversy). This is taken to further imply that the Holy Spirit is consubstantial and co-eternal with the Father and the Son. The Holy Spirit is also asserted to be the "Lord and Giver of Life".
[edit] Particular Christian views
[edit] Roman Catholicism
Depiction of Trinity from Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.
Depiction of Trinity from Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states the following in the first paragraph dealing with the Apostles Creed's article I believe in the Holy Spirit. "No one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God." Now God's Spirit, who reveals God, makes known to us Christ, his Word, his living Utterance, but the Spirit does not speak of himself. The Spirit who "has spoken through the prophets" makes us hear the Father's Word, but we do not hear the Spirit himself. We know him only in the movement by which he reveals the Word to us and disposes us to welcome him in faith. The Spirit of truth who "unveils" Christ to us "will not speak on his own." Such properly divine self-effacement explains why "the world cannot receive [him], because it neither sees him nor knows him", while those who believe in Christ know the Spirit because he dwells with them."
As regards the Holy Spirit's relationship with the Church, the Catechism states: "The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit...Thus the Church's mission is not an addition to that of Christ and the Holy Spirit, but is its sacrament: in her whole being and in all her members, the Church is sent to announce, bear witness, make present, and spread the mystery of the communion of the Holy Trinity...Because the Holy Spirit is the anointing of Christ, it is Christ who, as the head of the Body, pours out the Spirit among his members to nourish, heal, and organize them in their mutual functions, to give them life, send them to bear witness, and associate them to his self-offering to the Father and to his intercession for the whole world. Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body."
The Catechism also lists the various symbols of the Holy Spirit in the Bible:
* Water - signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism. As "by one Spirit we were all baptized", so we are also "made to drink of one Spirit." (1 Corinthians 12:13) Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified (John 19:34; 1 John 5:8) as its source and welling up in us to eternal life. (Cf. John 4:10-14; John 7:38; Exodus 17:1-6; Isaiah 55:1; Zechariah 14:8; 1 Corinthians 10:4; Revelation 21:6; 22:17)
* Anointing - The symbolism of anointing with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. (Cf. 1 John 2:20,27; 2 Corinthians 1:21) In Christian initiation, anointing is the sacramental sign of Confirmation, called "chrismation" in the Churches of the East. Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. Christ (in Hebrew "messiah") means the one "anointed" by God's Spirit.
* Fire - symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues "as of fire", the Holy Spirit rests on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost and fills them with himself.
* Cloud and light - The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and "overshadows" her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of Transfiguration, the Spirit in the "cloud came and overshadowed" Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and "a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'" (Luke 9:34-35)
* The seal is a symbol close to that of anointing. "The Father has set his seal" on Christ and also seals us in him. (John 6:27; cf. 2 Corinthians 1:22; Ephesians 1:13; Ephesians 4:3) Because this seal indicates the indelible effect of the anointing with the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders, the image of the seal (sphragis) has been used in some theological traditions to express the indelible "character" imprinted by these three unrepeatable sacraments.
* The hand. It is by the Apostles' imposition of hands that the Holy Spirit is given. The Letter to the Hebrews lists the imposition of hands among the "fundamental elements" of its teaching. The Church has kept this sign of the all-powerful outpouring of the Holy Spirit in its sacramental epicleses. The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme.
* The finger. "It is by the finger of God that [Jesus] cast out demons." If God's law was written on tablets of stone "by the finger of God", then the "letter from Christ" entrusted to the care of the apostles, is written "with the Spirit of the living God, not on tablets of stone, but on tablets of human hearts." (Exodus 31:18; 2 Corinthians 3:3)
* The dove. When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him. (Matthew 3:16)
[edit] Pentecostalism
The Christian movement called Pentecostalism derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem. They also believe that, once received, the Holy Spirit is God working through the recipient to perform the gifts of the Spirit. These gifts are portrayed in 1 Corinthians chapter 12.
The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Much of Pentecostalism holds that the 'Baptism with the Holy Spirit' is distinct from the salvific born again experience, as a usually distinct experience in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way, with the result that the Christian can now be more readily used to do signs, miracles, and wonders for the sake of evangelism or for ministry within the church. There are also many Pentecostals who believe that Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation, not a "second blessing". For a more detailed discussion, see Pentecostalism.
Many Pentecostals also believe that the normative initial evidence of this infilling (baptism) of the Holy Spirit is the ability to speak in other tongues (glossolalia).
[edit] Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy proclaims that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from whom is begotten the Son eternally and also from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Note that unlike the Catholic Church and western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the Filioque ("and the Son") in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is believed to eternally proceed from the Father, not from the Father and the Son. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith (Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed). Oriental Orthodox also coincide with Eastern Orthodox usage and teachings on the matter.
[edit] Dispensationalism
According to dispensationalism, we are now living in the Age of the Spirit, or church age (however some like Harold Camping say the church age has ended and we are in the tribulation period). The Old Testament period, under this view, may be called the Age of the Father, or of the (Mosaic) law; the period covered by the Gospels, the Age of the Son; from Pentecost until the second advent of Christ, the Age of the Spirit, or the church age (see also Joachim of Fiore).
The Mosaic Law was still in effect up to the time when Jesus Christ (the second person of the Trinity) died on a Roman cross, was buried and rose from the dead (1 Corinthians 15:1-5). The church age was fully established at Pentecost where the disciples' were given the Holy Spirit, and sent out by him to plant his church in the world.
A controversial view holds that at the time of the Rapture, the Holy Spirit will depart the Earth, although it is seldom mentioned today. However, the Rapture is another disputed point of Christianity. 2 Thessalonians 2:7.
The church age is said to close with the second coming of Christ.
[edit] The Churches of God Movement
In the Scripture, the word most frequently used for "spirit" is ruwakh (רוח) meaning "breath, wind, spirit" in Hebrew. In the Greek Scriptures, the word is pneuma, having a similar meaning. The Churches of God (Anderson, IN)[1] believe that the Holy Spirit is one of the three persons within the Holy Trinity. As the promised comforter (John 16:7),[2] the Holy Spirit comes into the life not only as a gift but an experience. Through the infilling and work of the Holy Spirit a Christian grows in their relationship with God and there is an instilling of wisdom, understanding, and an increasing of faith and strength. The Holy Spirit is offered generously through God's love, but given only to those that seek him.
[edit] Third Wave
The expression Third Wave was coined by Christian theologian C. Peter Wagner around 1980 to describe what followers believe to be the recent historical work of the Holy Spirit. It is part of a larger movement known as the Neocharismatic movement. The Third Wave involves those Christians who have allegedly received Pentecostal-like experiences, however Third Wavers claim no association with either the Pentecostal or Charismatic movements.
[edit] Branch Davidian, Some Messianics, and others
There are numerous Christian groups who base their thinking in regards to the gender of the Holy Spirit on the fact that the Hebrew word for Spirit, Ruach, is feminine. They give no weight to the facts that the Greek word for Spirit (Pneuma) is neuter, and the Latin one is masculine, because the Logos ("oracles" - words) of God were are said to be given unto the Jews (Rom. 3:1, 2).
Foremost among these groups, and the most vocal on the subject are the Branch Davidian. In 1977, one of their leaders, Lois Roden, began to formally teach that the feminine Holy Spirit is the heavenly pattern of women. In her many studies and talks she cited numerous scholars and researchers from Jewish, Christian, and other sources.
They see in the creation of Adam and Eve a literal image and likeness of the invisible Godhead, Male and Female, who is "clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" (Rom. 1:20). They take the oneness of God to mean the "familial" unity which exists between them, which unity is not seen in any other depiction of the Godhead by the various non-Hebrew peoples.
Thus, having a father and mother in heaven, they see that the Bible shows that those parents had a son born unto them before the creation of the world, by whom all things were created. The final element in their belief that mankind is literally made in the image and likeness of Gods is that of a divine daughter, a feminine counterpart of the son. They say that the concept has it roots in the Bible and Jewish concept of The Matronit. They see that the King James translators understood the concept of Christ having his own spirit (feminine counterpart), by using the terms "Holy Spirit" (Mother - Spirit of God), and "Holy Ghost" (Daughter - Spirit of Christ). Here are some example of Branch Davidian teachings on the Subject.[3][4][5][6]
These concepts are also taught among other groups, to one degree or another.
There are some other independent Messianic groups with similar teachings. Some examples include Joy In the World[1]; The Torah and Testimony Revealed [2].
There are also some scholars associated with more "mainstream" denominations, who while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead. For example, R.P. Nettlehorst, professor at the Quartz Hill School of Theology (associated with the Southern Baptist Convention) has written on the subject.[3][4][5] Evan Randolph, associated with the Episcopal Church, has likewise written on the subject.[6][7]
Here are some historical examples:[7][8]
[edit] "Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"
Holy Ghost was the common name for the Holy Spirit in English prior to the 20th century. It is the name used in the Book of Common Prayer and the King James Version of the Bible, and is still used by those who prefer more traditional language, or whose religious vocabulary is largely derived from the King James Version. The term is still retained in the traditional-language rites of the Anglican Church. The original meaning of the English word ghost paralleled the words spirit or soul; only later did the former word come to acquire the specific sense of "disembodied spirit of the dead" and the associated pejorative connotations.
In 1901 the American Standard Version of the Bible translated the name as Holy Spirit, as had the English Revised Version of 1881-1885 upon which it was based. Almost all modern English translations have followed suit. Some languages still use a word that overlaps both English words, such as the German Geist.
In Norfolk, a county in the United Kingdom, Religious Education teachers are told to avoid using "Holy Ghost" as it allegedly "suggests a trivial and spooky element to the third part in the Trinity".[9]
[edit] Gifts and fruits
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[edit] Fruit of the Spirit
Main article: Fruit of the Holy Spirit
Christians believe the "Fruit of the Spirit" are virtues engendered in an individual by the acceptance of the Spirit and his actions in one's life. They can be found in the New Testament (Galatians 5:22-23): "But the fruit of the Spirit is love (Gk: agape), joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, [and] self-control." The Tradition of the Roman Catholic Church, (Catechism of the Catholic Church, Section 1832), lists 12 segments making up the Fruit of the Holy Spirit: "charity, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, generosity, gentleness, faithfulness, modesty, self-control, [and] chastity." Many Christians believe that the fruit of the Holy Spirit are enhanced over time by exposure to the written word of God and by the experience of leading a Christian life. They further believe that the Fruit of the Holy Spirit are products of the Gifts of the Holy Spirit: "wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord."
[edit] Gifts and filling of the Spirit
Main article: Spiritual gift
Some Christians claim that when they align themselves with God through Jesus Christ that the Holy Spirit dwells inside of them. Some consider conversion to be the point of filling, others hold to a "later filling", "second work of grace", or "baptism of the Spirit" when a believer begins manifesting various gifts and abilities.
The Holy Spirit empowers the believer for ministry in the church and world and allows him/her to commune with the Creator.
The Sevenfold or Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism (accordant to Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, died 397) are the: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of Holy Fear; (from De Sacramentis 3.8). Ambrose believed that all of these were poured out on the believer at baptism.
Another understanding of Gifts of the Spirit holds that different gifts are given to different people, perhaps even at different times, according to the needs of the church, to carry out God's work on earth. Saint Paul believed that all Christians should work together, each with different functions like the parts of a human body. See 1 Corinthians 12.
From this perspective, the Holy Spirit can manifest gifts of many kinds, giving:
* Wisdom;
* Eyes illuminated to the Word of God;
* Knowledge revealed to them;
* Supernatural faith;
* Power to Perform Miracles;
* Ability to Heal or Experience Healing;
or causing the believer to:
* Feel the presence of God;
* Feel powerful sensations through the body;
* Overwhelming sense of joy;
* Be made an "apostle" (sent one, missionary);
* Be called as a Pastor/Holy person;
* Have the ability to teach from the Word of God;
* Be able to lead and administer;
* Have a knack for seeing needs and extending mercy;
* Give;
* Use one's life to help others;
* Consistently open one's home in hospitality;
* Love and forgive supernaturally;
* Evangelize (speak/spread forth the Good News);
* Engage in Glossolalia, commonly called "speaking in tongues";
* Engage in Xenoglossy or Religious Xenoglossia, speaking in an unlearned language;
* Raise the dead;
* Interpret different tongues;
* Hear God speak;
* Exorcise Evil Spirits that possess a person;
* Have a strong, personal connection to God;
* Be able to prophesy;
* Have visions;
* Discern spiritual, physical and mental conditions;
* See angels and demons at work.
There are four listings of gifts of the Spirit. Isaiah 11:2-3, 1 Corinthians 12:8-10, Ephesians 4:11-12, and Romans 12:6-8. In each of these references it is made clear that these gifts are for the building up of the Body of Christ, or the Church. St. Paul is aware of spiritual power that manifests itself in at least these ways and teaches the church of their presence, role and importance. These are to be distinguished from talents which all people enjoy because they are created in the image of God. Spiritual gifts provide the power and abilities needed to do the work of Christ in the world.
Some Christians, especially of Eastern Orthodoxy, believe that early fathers were especially guided by the Holy Spirit, making their writings almost as canonical as the Testaments.
Numerous other supernatural happenings have been linked to the Holy Spirit, and it is often claimed that the power of the Holy Spirit is manifested more in some than it is in others depending on the individual's openness to God using them and the Spirit's sovereign will.
Life in the Spirit
The following is an example of what is generally held by evangelical Christians.
Life in the Spirit is spoken of in many places within the Bible. We note this fact from many theological scholars, including Dr. Gilbert Stafford in his book Theology for Disciples, "The church was empowered both to increase numerically and to live a quality of life." We should be able to recognize the work of the Holy Spirit in the lives of all Christians. This can be seen as three separate movements, the conviction of sin, the holiness of character, and for power in service.
The Conviction of Sin This is an on going ministry and work of the Holy Spirit. It was first spoken of by Jesus as recorded in John 16:8.[10] The purpose of this conviction is for Christians to live set apart lives to honor God. It is through the conviction of sin that the Holy Spirit leads into a life that can be described as having a holiness of character.
With the infusion of the Holy Spirit into the lives of Christians so that they can live with a holiness of character. Holiness, and the Holiness movement, at times has been looked upon as legalism, and sometimes went that path. Yet the call to holiness of character should not be perverted by history. One who follows Jesus and is indwelled by the Spirit and submitting to that Spirit will live a life that has the fruit of the Spirit coming out of it, but this is not only for our own benefit, it is to serve God, and others.
Finally, we realize the movement of the Holy Spirit giving Christians power for service. This is for serving the Kingdom of God. This is where the gifts of the Spirit come in. The purpose of service within the Kingdom of God is to glorify God, and to extend the purposes and ministry of the kingdom, as stated in Acts 1:8.[11]
[edit] Depiction in art
See also: Language of the birds
The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as the Archangel Gabriel's announces Christ's coming to Mary. A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint Gregory the Great - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them.
The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the presence of God.
The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.
There are also some artworks that have depicted the Holy Spirit in a feminine sense as seen in the Sistine Chapel.[12][verification needed]
[edit] Non-Trinitarian Christian views
In the belief of many nontrinitarian religions — Christadelphians, Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses, for instance — the Holy Spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not an actual person. These beliefs may be drawn from passages such Luke 1:35: "The angel answered, 'The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you. So the holy one to be born will be called the Son of God.'" Here the phrase Holy Spirit is taken by non-trinitarians to be Synonymous parallelism with the power of the Most High. Thus their claim that Holy Spirit is considered to be God's power, not a person. However, Trinitarians take this very phrase to indicate a distinct entity, separate from God the Father, being that this usage is no different from a phrase such as "The Ambassador will present himself to the President, and represent to her the Graces of the Emperor " does not mean that the Ambassador is not a distinct entity from that of the Emperor (which is the view of the non trinitarians).
Some Christadelphians believe that one way God uses his Holy Spirit is in the form of his angels.[13] They also believe that sometimes the phrase Holy Spirit refers to God's character/mind, depending on the context that the phrase is in.[13]
[edit] Latter-day Saint views
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the name "Holy Spirit" has many references, depending on its usage and the context in which it appears. The term "Holy Spirit" can denote the Holy Ghost; Spirit; the Spirit of God; Spirit of the Lord; Spirit of Christ (or Light of Christ) or even Spirit of Truth. Latter-day Saints teach that these terms are distinct from one another, showing the many aspects and/or functions of God. For example, the Spirit of God has been used as a synonym for the "Holy Ghost", which is a usage that denotes the nature of the Holy Ghost, a distinct personage of the Spirit and an actual distinct and separate person of the Godhead. Spirit of God has also been used to denote a force or power which is impersonal and fills the immensity of space. This latter use is not the Holy Ghost, but denotes a "non-personage", as the Power of God or the Light of God that emanates everywhere.
Examples of these distinctions are shown within the Bible (King James Version) verses as:
* Holy Spirit - Psalm 51:11; Luke 11:13; Ephesians 1:13
* Spirit - Romans 8:16
* Spirit of God - Genesis 1:2; Exodus 31:1; 1 Samuel 11:6; Romans 15:19
* Spirit of the Lord - Judges 3:10; Isaiah 11:2; Acts 8:39
* Spirit of Christ - Romans 8:9 (notice here how the word "Spirit" is linked to "Spirit of God" and the "Spirit of Christ"); 1 Peter 1:11
* Light of Christ - 2 Corinthians 4:4; Ephesians 5:14; 1 John 1:7
* Spirit of Truth - John 14:17; John 16:13; 1 John 4:6
There are many other such references within the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price.
In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Holy Ghost is considered a third and individual member of the Godhead; by virtue of their holy nature and the everlasting covenant existent between them, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit operate as 'One God' (united in the attributes of perfection and pursuit of a common, divine goal). The Holy Spirit exists as a distinct and separate being from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit with no flesh and bones, whereas the Father and the Son are said to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone. Though The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is technically "Non-Trinitarian", their belief in the Godhead is often misinterpreted as an endorsement of Trinitarianism.
[edit] Jehovah's Witness views
Jehovah's Witnesses point out[14] that personification in the Bible occurs often, including terms such as wisdom, sin and death, water and blood, and does not indicate that the subject is a person. The fact that the Holy Spirit is referred to impersonally several times is used to assert that references of this manner would not occur in such frequency if this was a divine member of God, just as it does not occur with the Father or the Son. Additionally, at Jesus' baptism in Matthew 3:16, Jesus received God's spirit at that time, which Witnesses say conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Jesus relates in Mark 13:32 "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." The Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing from this statement, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in Acts 7:55, 56 where he sees only the Son and God in heaven.
Also noted, in regards to the mentions of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit together (as in 2 Corinthians 13:14; 1 Corinthians 12:4-6; Matthew 28:19), nontrinitarians bring out that none of these verses offer any evidence of the equality of nature or authority among them, just as the numerous simultaneous references to "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob" or "Peter, James and John" do not infer an equality in any manner. Alvan Lamson says in The Church of the First Three Centuries: "The modern popular doctrine of the Trinity . . . derives no support from the language of Justin Martyr: and this observation may be extended to all the ante-Nicene Fathers; that is, to all Christian writers for three centuries after the birth of Christ. It is true, they speak of the Father, Son, and . . . Holy Spirit, but not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One, in any sense now admitted by Trinitarians. The very reverse is the fact." In fairness however, it should be noted that while not explicitly expressing the Trinity in words these very Apocrypha writings from Justin Martyr and many others of ante-Nicene Fathers from A.D. 70 on, do refer to the duality of Jesus and the Father, Jesus being worshiped and referred to as their God.[15]
[edit] Oneness Pentecostalism
Oneness Pentecostals believe that the Holy Spirit is the Spirit of God himself both in action and in person. They believe the Holy Ghost is not a distinct individual in personage, or in personality apart from or together with God. They believe the Holy Spirit simply is God. They also believe that the Holy Spirit is the life giving power of the body of the man Jesus Christ both before death and after his resurrection, and that in heaven Jesus will be the visible appearance of God on the throne, of whom the church will be his bride. They believe the Spirit of Jesus is the same Spirit that moved over the face of the waters in Genesis 1, spoke to Moses from the burning bush,is the Comforter of John 14, and filled believers in the book of Acts. They believe his human flesh was created by himself and that he choose to dwell with man in this way. They believe that Jesus' body had a spirit until death, just as any live body has a spirit until separated by death, but believe the spirit of Jesus Christ is the Holy Spirit of God and therefore was able to return to and raise his human body from the grave. They believe the Holy Spirit had been manifested many times throughout biblical history as the burning bush, a pillar of fire, a finger writing on a wall, or even as angelic forms that spoke to Abraham, Gideon, and even wrestled with Jacob, but the greatest of all manifestations of the Holy Spirit was in the infant human form that was born of the virgin Mary in the city of Bethlehem. The Bible says he was conceived by the Holy Sprit, and that he would be called Emanuel, meaning God with us. This was the only form that God ever took that was born flesh and blood, and that could legally take away the sins of the whole world in which he loves so dearly. In this manifestation he would have to be tempted in all ways such as us, yet without sin. He was unlimited as God, but chose limit himself to the form and weaknesses of a natural, finite man. He would have to mind and obey his parents, pray to and obey his heavenly Father, live through life's tempations, yet remaining perfect, with out sin. This was only possible by the power of the Holy Spirit living inside his earthly body.
[edit] Unity Church views
The Unity Church's co-founder Charles Fillmore considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God.
To the Christian metaphysician the Holy Spirit is just what the name implies, the whole Spirit of God in action. In the Hebrew Jehovah is written Yahweh, Yah being masculine and weh feminine.
In the New Testament Christ stands for Jehovah. Jesus talked a great deal about the Holy Spirit: that it would bear witness of him, come with him, and help him to the end of the age.
Do not be misled by the personality of the Holy Spirit and the reference to it as "he." This was the bias of the Oriental mind, making God and all forms of the Deity masculine.
Holy Spirit is the love of Jehovah taking care of the human family, and love is always feminine. Love is the great harmonizer and healer, and whoever calls upon God as Holy Spirit for healing is calling upon the divine love. Jesus Christ Heals, pp. 182-183
[edit] Roman Catholic views on Unitarianism
There are many Roman Catholic writings that attempt to explain how the Holy Spirit, prior to Pentecost, might have been mistaken as not being a Person of the Trinity. One, the New Catholic Encyclopedia states: "The O[ld] T[estament] clearly does not envisage God's spirit as a person … God's spirit is simply God's power. If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of Yahweh acts exteriorly. … The majority of N[ew] T[estament] texts reveal God's spirit as something, not someone; this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God." (New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1967, Vol. 14, pp. 574, 575).
If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of Yahweh acts exteriorly (Isa. 48:16; 63:11; 32:15). Very rarely do the OT writers attribute to God's spirit emotions or intellectual activity (Isa. 63:10; Wisdom of Solomon 1:3-7). When such expressions are used, they are mere figures of speech that are explained by the fact that the RUAH was regarded also as the seat of intellectual acts and feeling (Gen. 41:8).
Neither is there found in the OT or in rabbinical literature the notion that God's spirit is an intermediary being between God and the world. This activity is proper to the angels, although to them is ascribed some of the activity that elsewhere is ascribed to the spirit of God"
This encyclopedia further states:
"… the NT (New Testament) concepts of the Spirit of God are largely a continuation of those of the OT. … The majority of NT texts reveal God's spirit as something, not someone; this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God.
When a quasi-personal activity is ascribed to God's spirit, e.g., speaking, hindering, desiring, dwelling (Acts 8:29; 16:7; Rom.8:9), one is not justified in concluding immediately that in these passages God's spirit is regarded as a Person; the same expressions are used in regard to rhetorically personified things or abstract ideas (see Rom.6:6; 7:17).
Thus the context of the phrase 'blasphemy against the spirit' (Mat.12:31; cf. Mat.12:28; Luke 11:20, see also Eternal sin) shows that reference is being made to the power of God".
Thus, it must be noted that Roman Catholic teaching has always held the Holy Spirit, however depicted, to be a distinct Person of the Trinity, not just an aspect or manifestation of some attribute of the Father or the Son.
According to those who hold the minority (and, for Catholics, heretical) view of Binitarianism, the Holy Spirit is not a separate being, but the Father and the Son are. One such group, the Living Church of God teaches this about the Holy Spirit, "The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout the entire universe (1 Kings 8:27; Psalm 139:7; Jeremiah 23:24). It was through the Spirit that God created all things (Genesis 1:1-2; Revelation 4:11). It is the power by which Christ maintains the universe (Hebrews 1:2-3). It is given to all who repent of their sins and are baptized (Acts 2:38-39) and is the power (Acts 1:8; 2 Timothy 1:6-7) by which all believers may be "overcomers" (Romans 8:37; Revelation 2:26-27) and will be led to eternal life" (Official Statement of Fundamental Beliefs).
The view that the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person has been considered to be heretical by mainstream Christianity, including Roman Catholicism. For example, Epiphanius of Salamis referred to some of those as Semi-Arians and Pneumatomachi ("spirit-fighters") and called them, "A sort of monstrous, half-formed people of two natures … Semi-Arians … hold the truly orthodox view of the Son, that he was forever with the Father...but has been begotten without beginning and not in time … But all of these blaspheme the Holy Spirit, and do not count him in the Godhead with the Father and the Son" (Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472)
[edit] Non-Christian views
[edit] Bahá'í Faith
In the Bahá'í Faith, the Holy Spirit, also known as the Most Great Spirit, is seen as the bounty of God.[16] It is usually used to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God, which are known as Manifestations of God, and include among others Jesus, Muhammad and Bahá'u'lláh.[17] In Bahá'í belief the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with his messenger, and it has been described variously in different religions such as the burning bush to Moses, the sacred fire to Zoroaster, the dove to Jesus, the angel Gabriel to Muhammad, and the Holy Maiden to Bahá'u'lláh.[18] The Bahá'í view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead, but rather is a pure reflection of God's attributes.[19]
[edit] Islam
Main article: Holy Spirit (Islam)
Holy Spirit in Islam is an agent of divine action or communication commonly identified with the angel Gabriel (ar: Jibreel) but also alternatively with the created spirit from God by which he enlivened Adam, made Mary pregnant with Jesus, and inspired the angels and the prophets.[20][21]
[edit] Judaism
In Judaism, the idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical (see Deuteronomy 6:4). Nonetheless, the term Ruah Ha-qodesh (Holy Spirit) is found frequently in Talmudic and Midrashic literature. In some cases it signifies prophetic inspiration, while in others it is used as a hypostatization or a metonym for God. [22] The Rabbinic “Holy Spirit,” has a certain degree of personification, but it remains, “a quality belonging to God, one of his attributes” and not, as in Christianity, representative of “any metaphysical divisions in the Godhead.” [23]
See also shekhinah.
[edit] Mandaeanism
Main article: Ruha d-Qudsha
[edit] Rastafarian view
As a movement that developed out of Christianity, Rastafari has its own unique interpretation of both the Holy Trinity and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is Haile Selassie who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, "Hola") Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see 'I and I'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true church is the human body, and that it is this church (or "structure") that contains the Holy Spirit.
[edit] Sant Mat
(see Surat Shabd Yoga)
[edit] See also
* God the Father
* God the Son
* God in Christianity
* Christ
* Jesus
* Angel
* Gabriel
* Fleur de lys
* Pneumatology
* Prevenient Grace
* Slain in the Spirit
* Athanasian Creed
* Apostles Creed
* Nicene Creed
* Agape
* A Course in Miracles
* Baptism with the Holy Spirit
* The Blasphemy Challenge
* Revelation
[edit] References
1. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_God_%28Anderson%29
2. ^ BibleGateway.com - Passage Lookup: John 16:7
3. ^ It's all Greek to Them, The Holy Spirit He, She or It?
4. ^ The Real Ghost Story
5. ^ She is a Tree of Life
6. ^ Shelter from the Storm
7. ^ “Martin Luther, the originator of the Protestant movement, was not ashamed to think of the Holy Spirit in feminine terms
8. ^ Church Fathers Believed the Holy Spirit was Feminine
9. ^ Norfolk schools told Holy Ghost 'too spooky' | Schools special reports | EducationGuardian.co.uk
10. ^ BibleGateway.com - Passage Lookup: John 16:8
11. ^ BibleGateway.com - Passage Lookup: Acts 1:8
12. ^ home
13. ^ a b Broughton, James H.; Peter J Southgate. The Trinity: True or False?. UK: The Dawn Book Supply.
14. ^ http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm
15. ^ Jehovah is The Almighty Creator. Jesus is the first born of all creation. Holy Spirit is Jehovah God's active force. http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/
16. ^ `Abdu'l-Bahá [1904-06] (1981). "The Holy Spirit", Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, pp. 108-109. ISBN 0877431906.
17. ^ Taherzadeh, Adib (1976). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1: Baghdad 1853-63. Oxford, UK: George Ronald, p. 10. ISBN 0853982708.
18. ^ Abdo, Lil (1994). "Female Representations of the Holy Spirit in Bahá'í and Christian writings and their implications for gender roles". Bahá'í Studies Review 4 (1).
19. ^ `Abdu'l-Bahá [1904-06] (1981). "The Trinity", Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, pp. 113-115. ISBN 0877431906.
20. ^ Griffith, Sidney H. Holy Spirit, Encyclopaedia of the Quran
21. ^ Patrick Hughes, Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, p. 605
22. ^ Alan Unterman and Rivka Horowitz,Ruah ha-Kodesh, Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition, Jerusalem: Judaica Multimedia/Keter, 1997).
23. ^ Joseph Abelson,The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature (London:Macmillan and Co., 1912)
[edit] External links
* Holy Spirit: Scripture Reference Guide
* a Lutheran's view of what the Holy Spirit does
* Lois Roden's studies on the Feminine aspect of the Godhead
* How To Live By The Power Of The Holy Spirit (Protestant Christian)
* Eastons Bible Dictionary:Holy Ghost
* Jewish Encyclopedia: Holy Spirit
* Catholic Encyclopedia: Holy Ghost
* The Holy Spirit: The Feminine Face of God
* The Holy Spirit: Who is He?
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God the Father
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God the Father , God the Son and Holy Spirit by Andrea Previtali.
God the Father , God the Son and Holy Spirit by Andrea Previtali.
In many religions, the supreme deity (God) is given the title and attributions of Father. In many forms of polytheism, the highest god has been conceived as a "father of gods and of men". In the Israelite religion and modern Judaism, God is called Father because he is the creator, law-giver, and protector. In Christianity, God is called Father for the same reasons, but especially because of the mystery of the Father-Son relationship revealed by Jesus Christ. In general, the name of Father applied to deity signifies that he is the origin of what is subject to him, a supreme and powerful authority, a patriarch, and protector.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Polytheism
* 2 Monotheism
o 2.1 Judaism
o 2.2 Gender
* 3 Christianity
o 3.1 Trinitarianism and other Christian conceptions
* 4 Notes
* 5 See also
* 6 External links
[edit] Polytheism
In many polytheistic religions, one or more gods is thought to be a leader and a father of other lords, or of humanity. The classical example from Indo-European mythology is Dyeus, with an epithet "father" e.g. in Roman religion as Iuppiter, and in Vedic religion, as Dyaus Pita. In Egyptian religion, jt-nṯr "god father" was an epithet of Thot.
[edit] Monotheism
In major forms of modern monotheisms, such as Judaism, Christianity, Bahai as well as in Vaishnavism and Krishnaism God is addressed as the father in part because of his active interest in human affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children, who are depended on him.[1] Thus, many monotheists believe they can communicate with him through prayer, either to praise him or to influence his behavior. They expect that as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children, acting in their best interests, even punishing those who misbehave like a father punishes his children. "Endure hardship as discipline; God is treating you as sons. For what son is not disciplined by his father? If you are not disciplined (and everyone undergoes discipline), then you are illegitimate children and not true sons." (Hebrews 12:8)
Islam, however, does not see Allah in a fatherhood role. For Muslims, such a relationship with him is condemned by the Qur'an. "(Both) the Jews and the Christians say, 'We are sons of Allah and His beloved'. Say: why then doth He punish you for your sins? Nay, you are but men of the men He has created". (Surah 5:18)
[edit] Judaism
In Judaism, God is called "Father" with a unique sense of familiarity; in addition to the sense in which God is "Father" to all men because he created the world (and in that sense "fathered" the world), the same God is also uniquely the patriarchal law-giver to the chosen people. He maintains a special, covenantal father-child relationship with the people, giving them the Shabbat, stewardship of his oracles, and a unique heritage in the things of God, calling Israel "my son" because he delivered the descendants of Jacob out of slavery in Egypt (Hosea 11:1) according to his oath to their father, Abraham. To God, according to Judaism, is attributed the fatherly role of protector: he is called the Father of the poor, of the orphan and the widow, their guarantor of justice. He is also called the Father of the king, as the teacher and helper over the judge of Israel.
[edit] Gender
Masculine characteristics are ascribed to God, in the scripture and traditions of the vast majority of monotheists; although, God is also usually defined as being a spirit, and thus having no biological sex. Accordingly, God is thought of as dominant, powerful, fatherly, dispassionate, whose ways are too high for his children to understand; and, in keeping with this understanding, God is conventionally referred to by the masculine pronoun he (often capitalised; He).
[edit] Christianity
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In Christianity, God is called "Father" in a more literal sense, besides being the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children. The Father is said to have an eternal relation to his only son, Jesus; which implies an exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him." (Matthew 11:27). In Christian theology, this is the revelation of a sense in which fatherhood is inherent to God's nature, an eternal relationship.
To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children. Thus, humans in general are sometimes called children of God. To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father (Ephesians 3:15), and thus God himself is the model of the family.
However, there is a deeper sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the eternal relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ. Christians call themselves adopted children of God: But when the fullness of the time had come, God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born under the law, to redeem those who were under the law, that we might receive the adoption as sons. And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ. (Epistle to the Galatians 4:4-7)
The expressions "God the Father" and "God our Father" appear frequently in the New Testament, as does Son of God, while God the Son and "God the Holy Spirit" are absent. Patristic and liturgical texts include the phrase "the God and Father,"[2] which is also used by Cyril of Alexandria.[3] Basil the Great in one passage speaks of "God the Father and God the Son" (ep. 52:1), but he writes elsewhere: "There is one God and Father, one only-begotten Son, and one Holy Spirit."[4] Thus, while the classic Christian teaching is that the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, this does not appear to be matched by equal usage of the phrases "God the Father", "God the Son", and "God the Holy Spirit" in early Christian writing. Likewise, the popularity of such expressions as "God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit" (which might be criticized as having a modalistic flavor) appears to be of more recent origin. While such language departs from New Testament usage, the undoubted deity of the Son and the Spirit according to classical Christianity legitimates its use. Still, it is notable that the biblical expression "God the Father" -- and absence of similar expressions relative to the Son and Spirit -- lays stress on the unique monarchy of the Father.
[edit] Trinitarianism and other Christian conceptions
To trinitarian Christians (which since post-apostolic times has represented the vast Christian majority), God the Father is not at all a separate god from the Son (of whom Jesus is the incarnation) and the Holy Spirit, the other members of the Christian Godhead. Trinitarian Christians describe these three persons as a Trinity. This means that they always exist as three distinct "persons" (Greek hypostases), but they are one god, each having full identity as God himself (a single "substance"), a single "divine nature" and power, and a single "divine will".
Other Christians held alternative ideas about the Trinity. A handful have described the Father, Son and Spirit as each a distinct, eternally existent being (tritheism), or as a different "manifestation" of a single being (modalism). Some have theorized that the relationship of Father and Son began at some point probably outside of normal "history" (Arianism); and others have believed that God became a Father when he uttered his creating Λογος ("logos" or "word"), who is both a principle of order and a living being to whom God bears the relationship as Father (some gnostics). Others found strong affinity with traditional pagan ideas of a savior or hero who is begotten by deity, an idea of the Father similar to Mithraism or the cult of the Roman emperor.
For many Christians, the person of God the Father is the ultimate, and on occasion the exclusive addressee of prayer, often in the name of Jesus Christ. The Lord's Prayer, for example, begins, "Our Father who art in Heaven…"
In the New Testament, God the Father has a special role in his relationship with the person of the Son, where Jesus is his Son and his heir (Epistle to the Hebrews 1:2-5). According to the Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. See Christology.
In Eastern Orthodox theology, God the Father is the "arche" or "principium" (beginning), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit (which gives intuitive emphasis to the threeness of persons); by comparison, Western theology explains the "origin" of all three hypostases or persons as being in the divine nature (which gives intuitive emphasis to the oneness of God's being). The Cappadocian Fathers used this Eastern Orthodox monarchian understanding to explain why trinitarianism is not tritheism: "God is one because the Father is one," said Basil the Great in the fourth century. In the eighth century, John of Damascus wrote at greater length about the Father's monarchial relation:
Whatsoever the Son has from the Father, the Spirit also has, including His very being. And if the Father does not exist, then neither does the Son and the Spirit; and if the Father does not have something, then neither has the Son or the Spirit. Furthermore, because of the Father, that is, because the Father is, the Son and the Spirit are; and because of the Father, the Son and the Spirit have everything that they have.
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. p. 98
2. ^ E.g. the dismissal used at the feast of Christ's Ascension in the Orthodox tradition: "May He who ascended ... and sat at the right hand of the God and Father, Christ our true God..."
3. ^ E.g. in his Commentary on the Gospel of John. Pusey's translation of this work, however, consistently but imprecisely renders the phrase as "God the Father", perhaps influenced by the biblical and common English phrasing "God the Father."
4. ^ On the Holy Spirit, 44
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"Faith can no longer mean sitting still and waiting -- they must rise and follow him. The call frees them from all earthly ties, and binds them to Jesus Christ alone. They must burn their boats and plunge into absolute insecurity in order to learn the demand and the gift of Christ.""
- Dietrich Bonhoeffer
Tuesday, April 5, 2005
Sabellius vs. Athanasius: Let's Get Ready to Rumble!
Posted by Bird @ 2:34 pm CDT
Filed under: Theology
Phil's recent post on different views about God got me thinking about Yahweh and our varying ideas of who He is, particularly as it relates to the Trinity.
Let me first say that I tread lightly, very lightly, on this hallowed ground for two reasons: First off, we're dealing with the very nature of who God is, and how He chooses to reveal Himself to humanity. Secondly, although it's not my intention to be a heretic, I'm sure that some within the Body would label me such, simply because I'm entertaining questions that Christian theologians apparently settled years ago.
To me, the doctrine of the Trinity is confusing. But, perhaps that confusion presents itself simply because I can never understand God's infinite knowledge and wisdom (Isaiah 55:9). On the other hand, I think God reveals Himself to us, and much of that revelation is there for the taking, we just have to look and ask.
My employer, and many of my fellow employees, are members of a Christian community; they call themselves Homestead Heritage. They live simple, agrarian lives in the outskirts of my hometown, Waco, Texas. The group comes from a United Pentecostal Church (UPC) background, but they now identify themselves as non-denominational. However, one of the views espoused by the UPC, the "oneness" view of God, is still part of their core belief. Some would say the idea, which sees the Father, Son and Holy Spirit as three expressions of God, rather than three distinct persons, is classic Sabellianism, or modalism as it is now called. With that said, many would consider a true modalist to be a heretic, and, therefore, not within the realm of orthodox Christianity.
One theologian, Dr. Roger E. Olson of Truett Theological Seminary, developed a strong rapport with certain Homestead Heritage leaders, and he recently wrote a piece in Christianity Today, giving a general overview of their community and their beliefs. (This article can probably still be found by performing a search on Yahoo or Google.) In his article, Dr. Olson contends that Homestead Heritage holds no "aberrant" doctrine, as far as he could tell.
Since I have been scratching my theological head for a few months now in regard to the Trinity, I thought I'd give Dr. Olson a call. You see, Olson is a Trinitarian, so I was naturally curious to get his firsthand input on Homestead Heritage and the doctrine of the Trinity in general. Thankfully, Dr. Olson was gracious enough to chat with me for 15 minutes or so; I found the conversation quite encouraging.
I'd be remiss to try and quote Olson directly, since I didn't write down what he said (except for one short blurb on modalism), but I'd like to communicate the gist of our conversation. In short, he seems to give a lot of grace to believers who accept Christ as God and Lord, yet are not quite there in their understanding of the Trinity. He's obviously quite fond of Homestead Heritage's community, and their "bold experiment" in radical, Christian, communal living. Also, he seemed to allude to the idea that apparent differences in theology might be more of a semantical issue since the Homestead Heritage folks tend to emphasize biblical language over church-created terminology.
Overall, Olson was very complimentary of Homestead Heritage and the Homestead leadership he's developed friendships with. One interesting thing he said about modalism is that a true modalist would have to say that the entire Godhead was on the cross; he doesn't believe the Homesteaders actually follow modalism to its logical conclusion.
I was struck by Olson's humility, as he explained that we, as believers, are all on a theological journey, and certainly not one person has all the answers. After talking to a great theologian like Dr. Olson, I found it fitting to talk to another great theologian, the Thinklings' own Jared C. Wilson. Jared said something I wholeheartedly agree with, "I don't think your theology saves you." Amen.
So, what's your opinion on the Trinity?
16 comments
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Comments on "Sabellius vs. Athanasius: Let's Get Ready to Rumble!":
1. Jared - 04/05/2005 2:39 pm CDT
Well, even though I believe it is Jesus who saves, and not theology, I do believe -- as I know you do -- that theology is important, critically so. My "opinion" is that the classical, traditional view of the Trinity is a valid test for Christian orthodoxy. In other words, I do believe a denial of the orthodox position on the Trinity is heresy.
But I would go out on a limb and say that personal salvation is not contingent on an entirely proper or full comprehension of the Trinity. I hope not, because even I don't really understand it.
I would grant more leeway if, as you mentioned, the person holding a deficient or slightly confused view of the Trinity nevertheless expressly confessed the deity of Jesus.
But I don't think that, say, "accidental" modalism is a damnable sin.
2. Kevin - 04/05/2005 4:46 pm CDT
I am a pretty vanilla trinitarian, but I wonder whether the church loses something when it doesn't occasionally refer to God with feminine pronouns when appropriate. God is an interesting kind of "male" with breasts, a womb, and chicks gathered under [His/Her] wings. I would agree that God is not female, but would suggest that God is not male either.
I have always known (and am now learning by experience) that a father alone is not a sufficient parent. There are needs that children have that a father, even a perfect one, cannot meet. There is a comfort in praying to God as One Who reacts from the Womb, and not just from the Right Arm of His Strength.
3. Bob - 04/06/2005 5:04 am CDT
To me, the doctrine of the Trinity is confusing.
If it's not, then you're not a Trinitarian. I like C.S. Lewis's idea -- and I'm not going to be able to recapture his eloquence here -- of God being "more personal" than we mere persons in the same way that a sphere is "more round" than a circle. It is possible that our failure to understand the Trinity is loosely like the failure of a two-dimensional being to understand a sphere. I really get annoyed when someone like Hannegraff (whom I usually like) blithely says, "Well, the Trinity is one God in three persons. Thanks for the call," as if that settles the whole thing. (I'm exaggerating of course, but not by much IMHO.)
Dr. Olson seems to give a lot of grace to believers who ... are not quite there in their understanding of the Trinity. ... Also, he seemed to allude to the idea that apparent differences in theology might be more of a semantical issue ...
Yep. Happens all the time. Olson sounds like a good guy. Of course, we should always be trying to make our own language about the Trinity as complete and accurate as possible, and we don't want to stand for heresy entering our churches. But we do have to show lots of grace in this area of deep waters. If anyone knows where to draw the line, please let me know. Sigh.
4. Bill - 04/06/2005 6:14 am CDT
Bob
Well said - you have stated very well the way I feel about trying to understand the doctrine of the Trinity
5. Alan - 04/06/2005 6:38 am CDT
Theology doesn't save, of course, Jesus does. But Jesus doesn't save if you think he's a chihuahua that hangs out in Taco Bell commercials. You do have to identify Jesus correctly in order to place a saving faith in him.
I like Jared's comment about "accidental modalism." If I conducted a poll on the nature of the trinity at a typical evangelical church, I would get more than a few heretical answers. But there's a difference between ignorance or accidental error and willful error.
For example, while many might give initially heretical answers on the trinity, in follow up questions, such as to the modalist, does that mean that the Godhead died on the cross, almost all would probably deny it.
So in examining heresy, we have to use precise language, but then we also have to inquire further-- what does that imply? If a person denies the implications of an extrabiblical formulation that the church has considered heretical, then I'd say the person's probably not a heretic, just confused or hung up on a terminological point.
Although I'd say that denying one particular implication of a position that is, taking terms at face value, heretical, does not mean that a person is orthodox.
Reading through that article by Olson, I was at once somewhat comforted, but also alarmed, at the position they took on the trinity. Of course, his article only mentions it in passing. But basically, they want to stick to biblical language regarding God, and not develop extrabiblical ways of describing God.
I think that's comforting because (a) I would consider the case for heresy very strong if they were actually employing extrabiblical formulations about God that are heretical, and (b) scripture is our only infallible rule of faith and practice. We ought to have it as a priority to be comfortable with scripture, and not just with theologically precise formulas.
At the same time, there are significant problems here. (1) You can't not use extrabiblical formulations about God. That is, unless you never talk or think about God except in verbatim chunks of the Bible. If you write books, give sermons, etc., then you are using extrabiblical formulations. (2) If you refuse to use extrabiblical formulations, then it becomes that much harder to pin down heresies that have their roots in a selective reading of the Bible. This would concern the heresy of modalism among the community's leaders, as alleged, or any other heresy that might sprout up in the future.
6. tychicus - 04/06/2005 6:49 am CDT
Just checked the UPC website...they don't seem to be confused or on a theological journey ...they're adamant in rejecting the Trinity.
7. Alan - 04/06/2005 7:13 am CDT
Tychicus, you're right, the UPC guys are pretty clear on their position. The group mentioned in the post, however, is not a UPC group, they just have some elders who are former UPC.
So while the UPC's words don't necessarily implicate this group in heresy, it does raise in my mind a question as to whether the refusal to affirm the language of historic creeds on the trinity is kind of an unholy truce between the orthodox and heretics within that camp.
8. Robefre - 04/06/2005 7:23 am CDT
Heyall
Not being quite ready to condemn any who at least get the Spirit involved in the name of the Saviour sent by the Creator, and certainly not understanding myself what exactly God is--as wisdom feminine (re any of the refernces to wisdom in Proverbs), as Saviour outside, as omnipresent already there, as ominiscient wanting my prayer, as omnipotent allowing/forgiving my rebellion.
I am Trinitarian/Monotheistic because Gen 1:2 the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. Gen 1:3 And God said, Let there be light:
But I do not see Trinity mentioned here or elsewhere in my readings of the Bible and so Trinity must be one of those extra biblical nouns, a concept drawn by inference from the Bible readings. If I think something, that is one thing, If I do/make something that is another, and if I do/make something that reflects my thought then my spirit is reflected by my being/doing.
I also believ in the soul competency/priesthood fo the believer, and something referred to in Revelation as the mystery that is God, leaving many things to interopretation and a certain admancy about leniency.
9. Phil in CA - 04/06/2005 12:40 pm CDT
I'm reading "The Murder of Jesus" and early on MacArthur spent time emphasizing the submission of Jesus' will to that of the Father. So many times the very nature of who Jesus is (revealed to be), what He did, and why He did things *requires* us a Trinitarian understanding to make any sense of it. Can we demote the doctrine of the Trinity to an issue of semantics or personal interpretation? I don't believe we can. I believe it's time we draw (yet again) a dividing "line in the sand" and stand as strongly for His triune nature as we have in defending His Divinity -- since I don't believe we can make a Biblical case for the separability of the two.
Phil
10. Anastasia - 04/06/2005 1:25 pm CDT
I agree. the text of scripture requires a trinitarian understanding of God. that's it's genesis.
11. Bob - 04/07/2005 4:46 am CDT
Phil in CA and Anastasia,
Just to make my position clear (and, though I shouldn't put words in their mouths, I think Jared and Alan are saying kind of the same thing), I don't think that the Trinity is something we can just "agree to disagree" on. Ultimately, heaven will be populated with Trinitarians only. And if anyone actually understands the doctrine of the Trinity (as well as it can be understood!) and rejects it with full consciousness of what he is doing, then he has big problems. My point (and I think Jared's and Alan's too) is that alot of us are not too bright, and this is a very hard concept to grasp. If we are dealing with people who are new to the faith, or with people who have spent their lives in churches that emphasize action without too much theology (good thing there aren't any Evangelical churches like that! ;) ) we are probably going to find alot of real Christians who have some messed up ideas about this doctrine. I am simply saying that in these cases, which I think are quite common, patience should be the order of the day.
12. Anastasia - 04/07/2005 8:09 am CDT
bob
i agree with you. except I don't think the trinity is supposed to be understood. it's a mystery.
but I do agree. it's not optional.
13. Don in Phoenix - 04/07/2005 9:08 am CDT
There are those who have been raised in the UPC who have, through study of scripture and theology, come to the understanding that UPC's vehement denial of the trinity is consistent with their hyper-Arminianism, "Left Behind" eschatology, their insistence that "if the old King James version was good enough for Paul and Silas, it's good enough for me," and their practically pathological obsession with the length of one's hair (not to mention whatever they think it is about elbows that requires them to be covered). In my opinion, these views all spring from the dominant culture among under-educated, working-class middle-Americans (and the con artists that preyed on them) at the time the organization was born in the first half of the twentieth century. It is quite enlightening to look at their requirements for ordination (also on their website).
I refuse to call them heretics, since although their understanding of the nature of God is limited by the anti-intellectual bias in their culture, they will generally answer any question about the nature of any of the three members of the Godhead correctly. I think they maintain their anti-Trinitarian stance largely as a result of their anti-Catholic views combined with their position on baptism based entirely on Acts 2:38 (in the name of Jesus Christ). They're confused by the bigotry they've been taught from childhood, but amazingly enough, the Spirit leads thousands out of that ignorance every year, and those always end up claiming that their differences with the so-called Orthodox view of the Trinity are entirely semantic.
By the way, I find it quite odd that the same organization that absolutely forbade me to watch Sesame Street and Mr. Rogers neighborhood as a child, since television was and still is the devil's tool, has embraced the World Wide Web as a valid method of communication and evangelism - but that may just be a little nit-picking rebellion on my part.
Don in Phoenix
14. Scott - 07/28/2005 8:52 am CDT
Untitled Document
Here are some links about Homestead Heritage that may bring their theology a little
closer to home. They certainly believe in living their religion, and I think that
is great...it's not just a Sunday morning ritual. Center
for Essential Education (CFEE) has a site as well as Homeastead
Heritage.And here is the Christianity
Today article about those folks. From what I gather I think their belief is
strongly built around "loving your brother whom you can see", which
is certainly commendable. Anyone who has visited them can testify to fact that
they are some of the nicest folks you could ever hope to meet...living their theology.
15. foreverhis - 01/31/2007 5:05 pm CST
I was a member of Homestead for seven years. They believe and teach that the Trinity expressed the way that Trinitarians express it is a Pagan idea. They hold to the "oneness" doctrine of the UPC with a twist. The twist is they believe Jesus still comes in the flesh...the New Testament Sacrificial "Body of Christ" and that all the/total authority of Jesus over the believer’s life is expressed and ministered through the "appropriate channels" (leaders,) of the Body. They believe that submission to a "tangible" (unquestionable) expression of the authority of Jesus still in the flesh is necessary for salvation.
For specific quotes and excerpts of their doctrines see the doctrine threads on WWW.factnet.org website in the Homestead Heritage thread.
16. Bird - 01/31/2007 5:38 pm CST
Thanks foreverhis,
I've seen the factnet site and there's way too much bickering on that site for me to make heads or tails out of anything. Thanks for dropping by here, though.
August 17, 2008
"The Poetry of Blessing" Judy Skaggs, UPC
Exodus 19: 3-6; Matthew 5:1-12
We have enjoyed preaching this summer on the odd speech of the church that calls forth our imagination and our poetic expression. As we consider the theme of blessing this morning, I have chosen two passages. The first expresses God’s blessing on the Israelites, reminding them what God has done for them, as they reach Mt. Sinai where they will receive the Torah, the 10 Commandments, that will guide their living.
The second passage is at the beginning of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount from Matthew, which, according to Matthew, is the first thing Jesus does when he begins his ministry. And this sermon would contain a fulfillment of that original Torah. Jesus begins with a series of blessings.
So in a sense, these two passages place the giving of Torah within a context of blessing. Let us listen for how the Spirit is speaking to the church. Read Exodus 19: 3-6; Matthew 5:1-12.
I keep trying to imagine what those first disciples were expecting from Jesus’ first sermon. They had seen him heal the sick – demoniacs, paralytics, various diseases. His fame was spreading and great crowds followed him. Imagine their excitement when he sat down to teach. And he began by giving blessings.
And yet, when we really listen to these blessings, we might wonder what kind of teacher Jesus really is.
His words remind me of something I read in an Anne Lamont book, Plan B. Anne describes the speech she usually gives when she is asked to speak at commencement. She says that she can imagine how she is making some parents very nervous. She talks about never graduating from college herself and being essentially unemployable. She makes a pitch for these college graduates to follow their creative dreams and not to worry about landing the great job that makes tons of money. She says, “Your problem is how you are going to spend this one odd and precious life you have been issued. Whether you’re going to live it trying to look good and creating the illusion that you have power over people and circumstances, or whether you are going to taste it, enjoy it, and find out the truth about who you are.” Her speech might not be exactly what those parents who have worked to pay for an education are wanting the commencement speaker to emphasize!
But in a sense, I found myself feeling that way about Jesus’ blessings. I mean, did we really feel blessed by Jesus’ words? Maybe if any of us have been reviled or persecuted this week. Or if we have shown great mercy toward someone, or made peace somewhere, or had an absolutely pure heart – not things many of us could say we have been this week.
Jesus even begins at the lowest place of all – you are blessed if you have poverty of spirit. Those are the ones who will have the kingdom. In fact in the first few blessings, Jesus points to those who are needy, who have no power of their own – those who mourn who have suffered loss, who are grief-stricken; the meek who make no claims for themselves either before God or before other people; those who are hungry and thirsty for righteousness, those who search with their whole being for justice.
Jesus goes on to describe ways of being that are blessed – being merciful, being willing to forgive, to be understanding of others; those who have a pure heart, who are single-minded toward God, whose whole being is directed toward God; those who not only seek peace, but who make peace, who are actively pursuing shalom - wholeness; and finally, those who are persecuted for Jesus’ sake are blessed, those who are getting in trouble for the right reasons – for the sake of righteousness, for justice.
So we are beginning to see that the blessings of Jesus are probably not what Irving Berlin had in mind when he counted his blessing in order to have a good sound sleep! These blessings contradict almost everything we think about when we think of our blessings.
So perhaps we need to consider that our true blessings, our richest blessings are those that surprise us, that are not what we would expect. And Jesus tells us where to begin – by looking at our poverty, at our impoverished spiritual lives. For only when we begin to understand how much we need God, how truly poor in spirit we are on our own, will we enter into this blessed state that Jesus is teaching us about.
I want to tell you about my friend Beverley. I asked her permission to tell a little of her story because her story is about God’s odd way of blessing. I believe Beverley is as close to being pure in heart as anyone I have ever known. All her motives, all her actions are driven by her deep love for God.
A couple of years ago, Beverley fell and suffered a very bad break of her foot. She had to have surgery and a lot of therapy, and was in a wheel chair for several months.
She had gotten to know the cast technician very well. So, in a casual conversation she asked about his family. He told her that his wife was on the list for a kidney transplant, and Beverley could see his worry and his frustration. And with that, my friend’s life was forever changed.
Over several months, she began to be certain that her call was to give one of her kidneys to this perfect stranger. She prayed, she asked others to pray, and the idea would not let go of her. She read, called donor centers, and prayed some more. And then she began the long process of being tested for compatibility. Miraculously, they were a perfect match!
So the surgery was about a year ago, and the young woman is doing very well. But, every time I talk to Beverley, I hear wonder in her voice that God has blessed her so greatly in this absolutely crazy way. Here is what Beverley wrote: “Is it any wonder that from the very beginning God provided our every need? The grace to say yes in the face of fear, in the face of trying to follow Jesus and live out His mandates is a state of spiritual commitment I hope always to be able to have. Thank you, Beloved Lord, for trusting me with this, for loving me so as to ask this of me!”
I am very inspired by Beverley’s story, because I believe it reflects the unusualness of the blessings offered to us by Christ. There is nothing ordinary about these blessings. They are sometimes hidden; they ask us to become true disciples in every way; they lead us to be and do things in the name of Christ that we would never be able to do on our own. They remind us of Christ’s eternal presence.
Since this is the last poetry sermon I will give, I would like to close with a poem which has meant a lot to me for many years. Go Down Death by James Weldon Johnson is a poem that expresses that we find God’s eternal blessing even in death. (poem follows)
Go Down, Death by James Weldon Johnson
Weep not, weep not,
She is not dead.
She’s resting in the bosom of Jesus.
Heart-stricken husband—weep no more,
Grief-stricken son—weep no more;
She’s only just gone home.
Day before yesterday morning,
God was looking down from his great, high heaven,
Looking down on all his children,
And his eye fell on sister Caroline, Tossing on her bed of pain.
And God’s big heart was touched with pity, With the everlasting pity.
And God sat back on his throne,
And he commanded that tall, bright angel standing at his right hand;
Call me Death!
And that tall, bright angel cried in a voice that broke like a clap of thunder;
Call Death! - Call Death!
And the echo sounded down the streets of heaven
Till it reached away back in the shadowy place,
Where Death waits with his pale, white horses.
And Death heard the summons,
And he leaped on his fastest horse, pale as a sheet in the moonlight.
Up the golden street Death galloped,
And the hoof of his horse struck fire from the gold,
But they didn’t make no sound.
Up Death rode to the Great White Throne, and waited for God’s command.
And God said: Go down, Death, go down,
Go down to Savannah, Georgia, down in Yamacraw,
And find Sister Caroline,
She’s borne the burden and the heat of the day,
She’s labored long in my vineyard,
And she’s tired—she’s weary—
Go down, Death, and bring her to me.
And Death did not say a word,
But he loosed the reins on his pale, white horse,
And he clamped the spurs to his bloodless sides,
And down and out he rode,
Through heaven’s pearly gates, past suns and moons and stars,
On Death rode,
And the foam from his horse was like a comet in the sky;
On Death rode,
Leaving the lightning’s flash behind; Straight on down he came.
While we were watching round her bed,
She turned her eyes and looked away,
She saw what we could not see;
She saw Old Death. She saw Old Death, coming like a falling star.
But Death didn’t frighten Sister Caroline;
He looked to her like a welcome friend.
And she whispered to us: I’m going home,
And she smiled and closed her eyes.
And Death took her up like a baby,
And she lay in his icy arms,
But she didn’t feel no chill.
And Death began to ride again -
Up beyond the evening star,
Out beyond the morning star,
Into the glittering light of glory
On to the Great White Throne.
And there he laid Sister Caroline
On the loving breast of Jesus.
And Jesus took his own hand and wiped away her tears,
And he smoothed the furrows from her face,
And the angels sang a little song,
And Jesus rocked her in his arms,
And kept a-saying: Take your rest, take your rest, take your rest.
Weep not, weep not,
She is not dead.
She’s resting in the bosom of Jesus.
August 10, 2008
"The Poetry of Wisdom" San Williams, UPC
Proverbs 1:20-33
I heard about a pastor of a mainline congregation who learned that a few of his parishioners sometimes attended the new mega-church in their city. When the pastor had a chance to ask one of the parishioners what he liked about the mega-church, the parishioner responded, “I always get something from the sermon that I can use in my daily life. I like sermons that offer Christian principles for living." Well, the popularity of preaching that offers clear instruction for daily living is indisputable. Here in Austin, and all over the country, worshippers will fill to overflowing large auditoriums to hear sermons that outline—often with the aid of power point—principles on marriage, work, family, friends, parenting, money and more. Now I’d be the first to say that there’s a lot more to the Christian life than pondering a set of principles. Still, we have to acknowledge that moral instruction, parental advice and other tips for daily living are in high demand. We also have to acknowledge that such instruction is part of the biblical tradition found in readings such as that we heard today from Proverbs. So let’s dust off a portion of scripture that hasn’t gotten much attention from this pulpit lately. Let’s take a fresh look at the so-called wisdom sayings found in the book of Proverbs.
But here's an important question to consider as we begin: What is wisdom? That’s a question I’ve been wrestling with all week. In our computer age, when in doubt, one can always go to the internet. I did just that, and Google provided the following lighthearted words of wisdom.
“It’s always darkest before dawn. So if you’re going to steal the neighbor’s newspaper, that’s the time to do it.”
"Never test the depth of the water with both feet.”
“Give a man a fish and he will eat for a day. Teach him how to fish, and he will sit in a boat and drink beer all day.”
“The quickest way to double your money is to fold it in half and put it back in your pocket."
"A closed mouth gathers no foot.”
"Before you criticize someone, you should walk a mile in his shoes. That way, when you do criticize him, you’re a mile away and you have his shoes.”
But of course the wisdom that has been accumulated in the book of Proverbs is of a more serious nature. For one thing, the wisdom sayings in Proverbs were accumulated during Israel’s post-exilic period. In this time of resettlement, there was a felt need to restore a sense of order, morality and identity to their community. Schools, especially for the young, sprung up after the exile inviting the Simple--that is, those still unschooled in the teachings of the sages--to come and learn the truths that brought one into harmony with God, promoted the welfare of the community and offered personal benefits of health and well-being. So unlike the prophetic writings that challenged the social order, the wisdom writings existed for the purpose of stabilizing the social order. Accordingly, the teachings found in Proverbs set forth principles of good conduct, as well as warnings against foolish behavior that leads to calamity and disaster.
Many proverbs, for example, warn against anger: “A gentle answer turns away wrath, but a harsh word stirs up anger.” And “Those who are hot-tempered stir up strife, but those who are slow to anger calm contention.”
Other proverbs emphasize honesty and prudence of speech: “Do not deceive with your lips.” And “An evildoer listens to wicked lips; and a liar gives heed to a mischievous tongue.”
Parents, too, can find guidance in such Proverbs as, “Train up a child in the way he should go; even when he is old he will not depart from it.” And here’s a proverb for those who adhere to a spare-the-rod-and-spoil-the-child philosophy: “Folly is bound up in the heart of a boy, but the rod of discipline drives it far away.”
Some of the proverbs sound as though they came straight out of a modern power-of-positive-thinking motivational seminar. For example, “A cheerful heart is good medicine, but a downcast spirit dries up the bones.” That’s a text some gifted preachers could turn into a whole series of sermons. Maybe even a book!
Or here’s a proverb senior citizens will like: “Gray hair is a crown of glory; it is gained in a righteous life.”
Still other proverbs offer practical advice on how to be a good neighbor, an ideal woman, an upright child and so forth. Many of these wisdom sayings still strike modern ears as sound advice, while others sound sexist, and some seem just plain wrong.
Now because we’re focusing on Proverbs, I wanted to set forth a few bullet points of wisdom, that you could take from today’s sermon. But my desire to do so was frustrated by a recurring question: Can wisdom be narrowed down to a pithy saying? Is it possible to find wisdom in abstract principles? Well, we can blame my struggle, in part, on Dietrich Bonhoeffer. While in prison for conspiring to overthrow Hitler in the final years of the Third Reich, Bonhoeffer struggled with the meaning of truth and falsehood, as he was repeatedly interrogated by the Nazis. In December 1943, he worked on an essay titled “What Does Telling the Truth Mean?” In this essay, he uses the example of a young boy who is asked by his teacher in front of the other pupils, “Is it true that your father often comes home drunk?” In fact, the boy has a number of recollections of his father coming home drunk. But sitting in the class, under the accusation of the teacher and the stares of his classmates, he can only deny his father’ drunkenness. Bonhoeffer remarks, “One could call the child’s answer a lie; at the same, this lie contains more truth—that is, it corresponds more closely to the truth—than if the child had revealed his father’ weakness before the class.” The teacher is the liar, Bonhoeffer observes, because he wrongfully uses his power as a teacher to humiliate the child in front of his classmates. Truthtelling, according to Bonhoeffer, exists in a web of particular relationships and circumstances, rather than in an abstract principle.
Have any of you seen the television show on Fox network titled The Moment of Truth? I haven’t watched it, but I read about it this week’s Christian Century magazine. On this show, contestants are hooked up to a polygraph, and asked increasingly personal questions. This process is supposed to reveal whether they are telling the truth or lying. A wife might be asked, “Have you ever met a man you found more attractive than your husband?” Or a husband might be asked, “If you could get away with it, would you cheat on your wife?” These questions are supposed to bring a moment of truth, but do they? Applying Bonhoeffer’s perspective, the questions themselves are false, because they don’t show any regard for the relationships involved or damage that may occur. “Do not deceive with your lips” declares the proverb, but the meaning of deception and truth-telling always involved careful attention to the relationships involved. That’s why I’m finding it difficult to narrow wisdom down to a few generalized principles that can be treated as absolutes.
Actually, the Apostle Paul made me feel a little better, because when he speaks of wisdom, he resorts to paradox, contradiction, irony and even sarcasm. What the world considers wise, writes Paul in 1 Corinthians, is foolishness to God, and God’s wisdom sounds like foolishness to the wise. What the world sees as weakness, God sees as strength. And what human logic considers a defeat, the wisdom of God knows as victory. In other words, for Paul the cross of Christ is the wisdom of God.
So maybe I shouldn’t feel too bad about not leaving you with some take-home principles for Christian living. Truth is, wisdom isn’t easily defined. Ultimately, wisdom is a gift that enables believers to discern where and how God is involved in the world among the lowly, the despised and the poor. God’s wisdom frees us from the prison of self to live in an ever widening circle of compassio. May we all be so wise.
JESUS IS.
Is Jesus eternal in the same way that God is eternal? Was he not born? Did he not die? How does his existence continue today? Some answers.
Chapter 8 in Systematic Theology by Ian Johnson
Jesus is eternal like His Father
As was shown in the last chapter, Jesus is God, one with his Father. (1). Thus, it should be no surprise that Jesus is self-existent exactly like his Father, as the Apostle John said:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made that was made... And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, (and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father,) full of grace and truth. John bare witness of him, and cried, saying, This was he of whom I spake, He that cometh after me is preferred before me: for he was before me. And of his fulness have all we received, and grace for grace. For the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ. No man hath seen God at any time; the only begotten Son, which is in the bosom of the Father, he hath declared him.
John 1:1-3, 14-18 (KJV).
Jesus' eternity was declared by the prophets
The eternity, in both the past and the future, of the Messiah who would be born as a man was declared by the Hebrew prophets. For instance, Micah stated that Messiah's "goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting." Micah 5:2. Likewise, looking to eternity future, Isaiah called Jesus the "everlasting Father" and declared that "of the increase of his government and peace there shall be no end" because he will reign on the throne of David "with justice from henceforth even for ever." Isaiah 9:6-7.
David also foresaw a king who would sit on his throne who would be "most blessed for ever" and would possess "length of days for ever and ever," Psalm 21:4-6 (2). It was further revealed to a later psalmist that God had sworn and everlasting covenant with David that his seed would call God his Father, and would endure forever on David's throne. Psalm 89: 3-4, 20, 26-29, 35-36.
Before Jesus' conception, his eternity was announced to his mother when the angel told her that God would give him the throne of David "and He shall reign over the house of Jacob for ever; and of His kingdom there shall be no end." Luke 1:33. Thus, although Jesus' pre-existence was not directly in view when the angel spoke to Mary, his future eternity and never-ending kingdom were familiar parts of Messianic prophecy which the angel confirmed to her and to which her faith reached out: "Be it unto me according to thy word." Luke 1:37.
Jesus declared his own eternity
Jesus also declared that he exists above time and has always existed just like his Father. In John 8:58, Jesus declared, "before Abraham was, I am." Likewise, in his prayer for his disciples and those who would later believe in him through their message, Jesus asks his Father to glorify him "with the glory which I had with Thee before the world was" and reminds the Father that "Thou loved me before the foundation of the world." John 17: 5, 24. When Jesus appeared to his disciples after his resurrection and commissioned them to preach the gospel to the world, he encouraged them by reminding them that "I am with you always, even unto the end of the world." Matthew 28:20. As stated, this is not so much a promise that he would, in the future, be with them wherever they would go as a statement of the fact that he was already with them every place they would ever go. It is a statement of his eternity extending into the future, as we see time. Finally, when he appeared to the Apostle John to reveal the things that would occur in the future, Jesus drew his declarations of his eternity all together when he said "I am the Alpha and the Omega, the Beginning and the End, the First and the Last." Revelation 1: 8, 11 & 22:13.
Jesus' eternity was preached by the Apostles
The letters of the Apostles confirm Jesus' self-existent eternity. For instance, Peter states that Jesus, the lamb offered for us, "was foreordained before the foundation of the world, but was manifest in these last times for" his own. I Peter 1:20. Similarly, John calls Jesus "that which was from the beginning ... that Eternal Life, which was with the Father..." I John 1:1-2. John later refers to Jesus as "him that is from the beginning." I John 2:13, 14. In his gospel, John further declares that Jesus, the Word, existed in the beginning, "was with God, and was God," made everything and was the source of life. John 1:1-4. Paul declares that Jesus is "the first-born of every creature" and the one by whom all things in heaven and on earth were created. Colossians 1:15-16. Like Peter, Paul also teaches that Jesus- purpose from before the creation involves His people, declaring that God "hath saved us and called us with a holy calling, not in accordance with our works, but in accordance with his own purpose and grace, which was given to us in Christ Jesus before the world began." 2 Timothy 1:9. Similarly, the writer to the Hebrews states that God made the world by his Son, Hebrews 1:2, and later explains that Jesus, a High Priest after the order of Melchizedek, has "neither beginning of days nor end of life." Hebrews 7:3. Rather, looking to the future, this writer says,
And it is yet far more evident: for that after the similitude of Melchisedec there ariseth another priest, Who is made, not after the law of a carnal commandment, but after the power of an endless life. For he testifieth, Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec... And inasmuch as not without an oath he was made priest: (For those priests were made without an oath; but this with an oath by him that said unto him, The Lord sware and will not repent, Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec:) By so much was Jesus made a surety of a better testament. And they truly were many priests, because they were not suffered to continue by reason of death: But this man, because he continueth ever, hath an unchangeable priesthood. Wherefore he is able also to save them to the uttermost that come unto God by him, seeing he ever liveth to make intercession for them.
Hebrews 7: 15-17, 20-25 (KJV).
Jesus' eternity was interrupted when he became human
Although Jesus is God, he voluntarily became human. Philippians 2:6-7. The full meaning of this is beyond human comprehension, and various of its implications will be explained at other places in this work. However, for present purposes, it can be said that, when Jesus became human, he took on himself for a short time all of our human limitations, including those which involve time and its passage. Thus, although Jesus is pre-existent with his Father, it is recorded that he was begotten at a time in human history and, therefore, has a beginning.(3) John the Baptizer spoke of the resulting apparent contradiction when he said "after me cometh a man who is preferred before me because he was before me." John 1: 15, 30.
As a man, Jesus was also limited to flowing through time with us. Thus, on more than one occasion, Jesus said his time to perform some act had not yet come.(4) Like us, Jesus was also limited to being in only one place at a time; he was not omnipresent like his Father, as is poignantly illustrated by his words to his disciples when he learned of the death of Lazarus: "I am glad for your sakes that I was not there, to the intent that ye may believe. Nevertheless let us go unto him." John 11:15. Likewise, throughout his earthly ministry until the night he was betrayed, Jesus spoke of his death, resurrection and return to his Father as future events, not as things already accomplished.(5) It was only when the time had come that Jesus spoke of his death as a present-tense event. Luke 22:14-22; John 17:1-5. Jesus then died - although he is eternal, his physical life on earth had an end. Mark 15: 36-45; John 19:29-37.
The resurrected Jesus is eternal - partly through us
Jesus, now resurrected, is no longer subject to mortal human limitations. He has resumed his eternity, which must necessarily include even the time of his earthly ministry, else all Creation would have disintegrated when he died. Revelation 1:18; Colossians 1:17-18. Instead, he has now reconciled all things unto himself by the Cross. Colossians 1:20. However, there is one sense in which our resurrected Lord has retained a human limitation: he now exercises his presence and power on Earth through mortal humans, through the Church, his Body. Colossians 1:18; Ephesians 1:22-23. Thus, in giving the Great Commission, Jesus did not promise the disciples that he would be everywhere; rather, he promised that he would be with them always. Matthew 28:20. Likewise, Jesus is found in the midst of two or three gathered in his name. Matthew 18:20. Indeed, the very metaphor of the Church as the body of Christ and individual believers as physical members of that body plainly implies that Jesus now does his work through us and is only able to fully accomplish that work when we work together as a body. I Corinthians 12:12-29. So Jesus, though he has now resumed his eternity, has not resumed his omnipresence in the same sense as previously, having chosen to manifest his presence in part through his people.
Next Page: Chapter 9. Jesus is the Son of God
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0. I have used KJV in this chapter because some of the more modern translations, in emphasizing Jesus' pre-existence in passages like John 1, unnecessarily soft-pedal his sonship by translating monogenes "One and Only." Unfortunately for the modern translators, the word monogenes clearly contains the idea of begetting, generation or birth (genes). Jesus' eternity and his begetting can't be reconciled by simply ignoring his origin in the Father.
1. See, e.g., I John 5:1-12.
2. Compare the king's son whose name shall endure forever in Psalm 72:1-2, 17 and David's seed who will endure on the throne forever in Psalm 89:20-37.
3. Matthew 1:18; Luke 1:26&45;38; Hebrews 1:5.
4. See, for example, John 2:4 and John 7:6-8.
5. For example, Matthew 26:2; Luke 9:22; John 7:33-34; John 8:27.
Hebrews
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This article is about the Hebrew people. For the book of the Bible, see Epistle to the Hebrews.
Hebrews (or Hebertes, Eberites, Hebreians, "Habiru" or "Habiri"; Hebrew: עברים or עבריים, Standard ʿIvrim, ʿIvriyyim Tiberian ʿIḇrîm, ʿIḇriyyîm) are an ancient people defined as descendants of biblical Patriarch Eber (Hebrew עברי (ʿIḇrî) "traverse or pass over"), a great-grandson of Noah.
They were called Ibri, meaning the people from over on the other side of the Jordan river.[1] They lived in the Land of Canaan (the Levant). The Ibri people are also known in Africa, mainly Egypt and Sudan[citation needed].
Other authors believe that Ivri is another name for Abraham, and define the Hebrews as the descendants of this patriarch.[2] Note however that Abraham is once referred to as "Abram the Hebrew" (Genesis 14:13).
Hebrews are known as the ancestors of the Israelites, who used the hebrew language. Israelites were the writers of the Hebrew Bible and therefore the spiritual and historical forerunners of the Jews, Christians and Muslims. In the Bible and in current language, the word Hebrews is often used as a synonym for Israelites, and sometimes for the users of the hebrew language (Jews and Israelis).
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Hebrews vs. Israelites vs. Jew
* 2 Language
* 3 See also
* 4 Notes
* 5 References
[edit] Hebrews vs. Israelites vs. Jew
See also: Israelites, Who is a Jew?, and History of ancient Israel and Judah
Israelites are defined as the descendants of Jacob, son of Isaac, grandson of Abraham. Eber, an ancestor of Jacob (6 generations removed), is a distant ancestor of many people, including the Israelites but also the Arabs, descendant from Ishmael. Among historical scholars, there is some disagreement about the relationship between the Hebrews and Israelites, the history and legacy of the Hebrew people.
Jews are all people of Jewish faith, regardless of ancestry. Genetic data suggests that few current Jewish males descend from Israelites. See Haplogroup J1 (Y-DNA)
The terms "Hebrews" and "Israelites" usually describe the same people, called Hebrews before the conquest of the Land of Canaan and Israelites afterwards.[3][4] Occasionally, "Hebrews" is used to designate the Jews, who use the hebrew language.[5] The Epistle to the Hebrews was probably written for Jewish Christians. The current State of Israel, the homeland of all Jews, is often nicknamed the "Hebrew state".
[edit] Language
These areas were politically Phoenicia and of the Philistines in Canaan when they first arrived in the area (this statement is matter of debate: some archaeologists believe that the Israelites simply arose as a subculture within Canaanite society). The Hebrews lived within this region in the 2nd millennium BCE and spoke a Canaanite dialect, which played a role in the Hebrew languages, the local Canaanite culture. The extent of the distinction between the culture of the Canaanites and the Hebrews is a matter of great debate, touching as it does on strong religious sensibilities. They were also known as the Israelites and Judeans. Hebrew is the main language traditionally used in Jewish holy scriptures and prayer, and since the early 20th century, has undergone a secular revival, to become the primary everyday language of Jews in Palestine and later in the State of Israel.
Christian
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For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation).
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A Christian (listen) is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament[2] and interpreted by Christians to have been prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament[3].
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Etymology
* 2 Who is a Christian?
* 3 In other languages
* 4 See also
* 5 References
[edit] Etymology
The word comes from Old English cristen, from Latin Christianus, from Greek Χριστιανός (khristianos), from Χριστός (khristos) meaning "the anointed".[4] In the (Greek) Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible, khristos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Mašíaḥ,) (messiah), meaning "[one who is] anointed."[5]
The first known usage of the term Χριστιανός (khristianos) can be found in the New Testament, in Acts 11:26: "the disciples were called Christians first in Antioch." The term was thus first used to denote those known or perceived to be disciples or followers of Jesus Christ. In the two other New Testament uses of the word (Acts 26:28 and 1 Peter 4:16), it also refers to the public identity of those who follow Jesus.
The earliest recorded use of the term outside the Bible was when Tacitus recorded that Nero blamed the "Christians" for the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64.[6]
"Christian" also means a member or adherent of a church or other organized group within Christianity. As an adjective, the term may also describe anything associated with Christianity, or even remotely thought to be consistent with Christianity, as in "the Christian thing to do."
In the United States, especially the South and Midwest, the word Christian may also be narrowly used as shorthand for certain denominations or groupings, particularly the Disciples of Christ, United Church of Christ or Churches of Christ; for example, "First Christian Church of (name of local town)".
[edit] Who is a Christian?
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008)
The definition of who is a "Christian" varies among people and Christian groups. Some believe that, to be a Christian, an individual must simply attend a church or participate in baptism. Others teach that instead a belief and acceptance in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ is necessary. Some consider a Christian to be simply one who tries to follow the teachings of Jesus Christ.
Some theologians consider a Christian to be anyone who accepts the Nicene Creed. This ancient text is accepted by Catholics, the Orthodox, Anglicans, Lutherans and all the remaining mainline Protestant Churches.
Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and many Protestants define a Christian as one who has become a member of the church through the sacrament of baptism. In these denominations, infants who are baptized may be considered Christians, although they are expected to make a personal affirmation of faith when old enough to decide for themselves.
Evangelical and fundamentalist denominations do not generally practice infant baptism. Some teach that "Believer's baptism" as a repenting adult is necessary for salvation — the transition from non-Christian to Christian. Others do not believe that baptism is necessary for salvation, but consider it an act of obedience and identification with Jesus. They encourage youth and adults to "become Christians" by personally "accepting Jesus Christ as their Lord and Saviour". These groups also use the phrase "being born again" (referring to John 3:3) to describe becoming a Christian.
Others consider themselves Christian just by adhering to the teachings of Jesus Christ, without being a member of a church and thereby not belonging to a subdivision of Christianity.
Within countries where Christianity is the historical majority religion, the term is also used by some in a casual generic sense to indicate that they are not members of nor affiliated with any other religion – therefore considering themselves Christians by default.[7]
[edit] In other languages
In other European languages the word is similar, e.g. Chrétien in French. The Chinese word is 基督徒 (pinyin: jīdū tú), literally "Christ follower".
As the identification of "Christ" with Jesus is not accepted within Judaism, in Talmudic Hebrew Christians are called "Nazarenes" (Notzri), because Jesus is described in the New Testament as being from the city of Nazareth.[8]
Among Arabs (whether Christians, Muslims or belonging to other faiths), as well as in other languages influenced by the Arabic language (i.e. mainly in Muslim cultures influenced by Arabic as the liturgical language of Islam), two words are commonly used for Christians: Nasrani (stemming from the Arabic ansar, as in the disciples of Jesus), and Masihi meaning followers of the Messiah.[9][10] Where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi means those with a religious faith in Jesus.[11] In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim white people.[11] Another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Salibi; this refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations.[10][12]
[edit] See also
Christianity portal
* Conversion to Christianity
* Christendom
[edit] References
1. ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IX, Monotheism; William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity; H. Richard Niebuhr, ; About.com, Monotheistic Religion resources; Jonathan Kirsch, God Against the Gods; Linda Woodhead, An Introduction to Christianity; The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Monotheism; The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, monotheism; New Dictionary of Theology, Paul pp. 496-99; David Vincent Meconi, "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity" in Journal of Early Christian Studies pp. 111–12, 2nd London Baptist Confession 1689, 2:1 "1. The Lord our God is but one only living and true God; whose subsistence is in and of himself, infinite in being and perfection; whose essence cannot be comprehended by any but himself; a most pure spirit, invisible, without body, parts, or passions, who only hath immortality, dwelling in the light which no man can approach unto; who is immutable, immense, eternal, incomprehensible, almighty, every way infinite, most holy, most wise, most free, most absolute; working all things according to the counsel of his own immutable and most righteous will for his own glory; most loving, gracious, merciful, long-suffering, abundant in goodness and truth, forgiving iniquity, transgression, and sin; the rewarder of them that diligently seek him, and withal most just and terrible in his judgments, hating all sin, and who will by no means clear the guilty."
Antioch
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For other places with the same name, see Antioch (disambiguation).
This article is about the historical city. For the modern city, see Antakya.
Antioch on the Orontes (Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη; Latin: Antiochia ad Orontem; also Great Antioch or Syrian Antioch) was an ancient city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. Continuously inhabited since then, it became the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.
Founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals. Antioch eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the nearer East and was a cradle of gentile Christianity. It was one of the four cities of the Syrian tetrapolis.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Geography
* 2 History
o 2.1 Prehistory
o 2.2 Foundation by Seleucus I
o 2.3 Hellenistic age
o 2.4 Roman period
o 2.5 Late Antiquity
+ 2.5.1 4th to 6th centuries
o 2.6 Arab period
o 2.7 Crusader era
* 3 Archaeology
* 4 Notable people
* 5 Footnotes
* 6 External references
* 7 See also
* 8 External links
[edit] Geography
Location of Antioch.
Location of Antioch.
Two routes from the Mediterranean, lying through the Orontes gorge and the Beilan Pass, converge in the plain of the Antioch Lake (Balük Geut or El Bahr) and are met there by
1. the road from the Amanic Gates (Baghche Pass) and western Commagene, which descends the valley of the Kara Su,
2. the roads from eastern Commagene and the Euphratean crossings at Samosata (Samsat) and Apamea Zeugma (Birejik), which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the Kuwaik, and
3. the road from the Euphratean ford at Thapsacus, which skirts the fringe of the Syrian steppe. A single route proceeds south in the Orontes valley.
[edit] History
[edit] Prehistory
The settlement of Meroe pre-dated Antioch. A shrine of Anat, called by the Greeks the "Persian Artemis," was located here. This site was included in the eastern suburbs of Antioch. There was a village on the spur of Mount Silpius named Io, or Iopolis. This name was always adduced as evidence by Antiochenes (e.g. Libanius) anxious to affiliate themselves to the Attic Ionians--an eagerness which is illustrated by the Athenian types used on the city's coins. Io may have been a small early colony of trading Greeks (Javan). John Malalas mentions also an archaic village, Bottia, in the plain by the river.
[edit] Foundation by Seleucus I
Alexander the Great is said to have camped on the site of Antioch, and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus, which lay in the northwest of the future city. This account is found only in the writings of Libanius, a 4th century AD orator from Antioch, and may be legend intended to enhance Antioch's status. But the story is not unlikely in itself.[1]
After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generals divided up the territory he had conquered. Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria, and he proceeded to found four "sister cities" in northwestern Syria, one of which was Antioch. Like the other three, Antioch was named by Seleucus for a member of his family. He is reputed to have built sixteen Antiochs.[2]
Seleucus founded Antioch on a site chosen through ritual means. An eagle, the bird of Zeus, had been given a piece of sacrificial meat and the city was founded on the site to which the eagle carried the offering. He did this in the twelfth year of his reign. Antioch soon rose above Seleucia Pieria to become the Syrian capital.
[edit] Hellenistic age
The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the grid plan of Alexandria by the architect Xenarius. Libanius describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p. 300. 17). The citadel was on Mt. Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low ground to the north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid out, probably on the east and by Antiochus I, which, from an expression of Strabo, appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own. In the Orontes, north of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II Callinicus began a third walled "city," which was finished by Antiochus III. A fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164 BC); and thenceforth Antioch was known as Tetrapolis. From west to east the whole was about 6 km in diameter and little less from north to south, this area including many large gardens.
The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers that Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). The total free population of Antioch at its foundation has been estimated at between 17,000 and 25,000, not including slaves and native settlers.[1] During the late Hellenistic period and Early Roman period, Antioch population reached its peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (estimates vary from 400,000 to 600,000) and was the third largest city in the world after Rome and Alexandria. By the 4th century, Antioch's declining population was about 200,000 according to Chrysostom, a figure which again does not include slaves.
About 6 km west and beyond the suburb Heraclea lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo, also founded by Seleucus I and enriched with a cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the western world; and indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame. Its amenities awoke both the enthusiasm and the scorn of many writers of antiquity.[citation needed]
Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being Seleucia on the Tigris; but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240 BC), which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Asia Minor, and led indirectly to the rise of Pergamum.
The Seleucids reigned from Antioch.[citation needed] We know little of it in the Greek period, apart from Syria, all our information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably situated on the island. It enjoyed a reputation for letters and the arts (Cicero pro Archia, 3); but the only names of distinction in these pursuits during the Seleucid period, that have come down to us, are Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The mass of the population seems to have been only superficially Hellenic, and to have spoken Aramaic in non-official life. The nicknames which they gave to their later kings were Aramaic; and, except Apollo and Daphne, the great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native, such as the "Persian Artemis" of Meroe and Atargatis of Hierapolis Bambyce.
The epithet, "Golden," suggests that the external appearance of Antioch was impressive, but the city needed constant restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has always been subjected. The first great earthquake in recorded history was related by the native chronicler John Malalas. It occurred in 148 BC and did immense damage.
Local politics were turbulent. In the many dissensions of the Seleucid house the population took sides, and frequently rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147 BC, and Demetrius II in 129 BC. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes of Armenia to occupy the city in 83 BC, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII in 65 BC, and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Its wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, but remained a civitas libera.
[edit] Roman period
The Romans both felt and expressed boundless contempt for the hybrid Antiochenes.[citation needed] Their emperors, however, favoured the city from the first, seeing it as a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Caesar visited it in 47 BC, and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at the insistence of Octavian, whose cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out. Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius. Agrippa and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their work. Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with granite. A circus, other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new aqueducts to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the work of Hadrian. The Roman client, King Herod, erected a long stoa on the east, and Agrippa encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of this.
This argenteus was struck in Antioch mint, under Constantius Chlorus.
This argenteus was struck in Antioch mint, under Constantius Chlorus.
The chief events recorded under the empire are the earthquakes that shook Antioch. One, in AD 37, caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on the condition of the city. Another followed in the next reign; and in 115, during Trajan's sojourn in the place with his army of Parthia, the whole site was convulsed, the landscape altered, and the emperor himself forced to take shelter in the circus for several days. He and his successor restored the city; but in 526, after minor shocks, the calamity returned in a terrible form; the octagonal cathedral which had been erected by the emperor Constantius II suffered and thousands of lives were lost, largely those of Christians gathered to a great church assembly. Especially terrific earthquakes on November 29, 528 and October 31, 588 are also recorded.
At Antioch Germanicus died in 19 AD, and his body was burnt in the forum. Titus set up the Cherubim, captured from the Jewish temple, over one of the gates. Commodus had Olympic games celebrated at Antioch, and in 256 the town was suddenly raided by the Persians, who slew many in the theatre.
The Antioch Chalice, first half of 6th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
The Antioch Chalice, first half of 6th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
[edit] Late Antiquity
The chief interest of Antioch under the empire lies in its relation to Christianity. Evangelized perhaps by Peter, according to the tradition upon which the Antiochene patriarchate still rests its claim for primacy (cf. Acts 11), and certainly by Barnabas and Paul during Paul's first missionary journey[3]. Its converts were the first to be called Christians (Acts 11:26). This is not to be confused with Antioch in Pisidia, to which the early missionaries later travelled (Acts 13:14–50).
A bronze coin from Antioch depicting the emperor Julian. Note the pointed beard.
A bronze coin from Antioch depicting the emperor Julian. Note the pointed beard.
The population was estimated by Chrysostom at about 100,000 people at the time of Theodosius I. Between 252 and 300, ten assemblies of the church were held at Antioch and it became the seat of one of the four original patriarchates, along with Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Rome (see Pentarchy). Today Antioch remains the seat of a patriarchate of the Oriental Orthodox churches. One of the canonical Eastern Orthodox churches is still called the Antiochian Orthodox Church, although it moved its headquarters from Antioch to Damascus, Syria, several centuries ago (see list of Patriarchs of Antioch), and its prime bishop retains the title "Patriarch of Antioch," somewhat analogous to the manner in which several Popes, heads of the Roman Catholic Church remained "Bishop of Rome" even while residing in Avignon, France in the 14th century.
[edit] 4th to 6th centuries
During the 4th century, Antioch was one of the three most important cities in the eastern Roman empire (along with Alexandria and Constantinople), which led to it being recognized as the seat of one of the five early Christian patriarchates (see Pentarchy).
When the emperor Julian visited in 362 on a detour to Persia, he had high hopes for Antioch, regarding it as a rival to the imperial capital of Constantinople. Antioch had a mixed pagan and Christian population, which Ammianus Marcellinus implies lived quite harmoniously together. However Julian's visit began ominously as it coincided with a lament for Adonis, the doomed lover of Aphrodite. Thus, Ammianus wrote, the emperor and his soldiers entered the city not to the sound of cheers but to wailing and screaming.
The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme.
Colossians 1:15
Why Christians call each other brother and sister
Matthew 12
48But he answered and said unto him that told him, Who is my mother? and who are my brethren?
49And he stretched forth his hand toward his disciples, and said, Behold my mother and my brethren!
50For whosoever shall do the will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother.
15He is the (A)image of the (B)invisible God, the firstborn of all creation.
Colossians 1:twenty
20and through Him to (A)reconcile all things to Himself, having made (B)peace through the blood of His cross; through Him, I say, whether things on earth or things in heaven.
Not long after, the Christian population railed at Julian for his favour to Jewish and pagan rites, and, outraged by the closing of its great church of Constantine, burned down the temple of Apollo in Daphne. Another version of the story had it that the chief priest of the temple accidentally set the temple alight because he had fallen asleep after lighting a candle. In any case Julian had the man tortured for negligence (for either allowing the Christians to burn the temple or for burning it himself), confiscated Christian property and berated the pagan Antiochenes for their impiety.
Julian found much else about which to criticize the Antiochenes. Julian had wanted the empire's cities to be more self-managing, as they had been some 200 years before. However Antioch's city councilmen showed themselves unwilling to shore up Antioch's food shortage with their own resources, so dependent were they on the emperor. Ammianus wrote that the councilmen shirked their duties by bribing unwitting men in the marketplace to do the job for them.
The city's impiety to the old religion was clear to Julian when he attended the city's annual feast of Apollo. To his surprise and dismay the only Antiochene present was an old priest clutching a chicken.
The Antiochenes in turn hated Julian for worsening the food shortage with the burden of his billeted troops, wrote Ammianus. The soldiers were often to be found gorged on sacrificial meat, making a drunken nuisance of themselves on the streets while Antioch's hungry citizens looked on in disgust. The Christian Antiochenes and Julian's pagan Gallic soldiers also never quite saw eye to eye.
Even Julian's piety was distasteful to the Antiochenes retaining the old faith. Julian's brand of paganism was very much unique to himself, with little support outside the most educated Neoplatonist circles. The irony of Julian's enthusiasm for large scale animal sacrifice could not have escaped the hungry Antiochenes. Julian gained no admiration for his personal involvement in the sacrifices, only the nickname axeman, wrote Ammianus.
The emperor's high-handed, severe methods and his rigid administration prompted Antiochene lampoons about, among other things, Julian's unfashionably pointed beard. In reply Julian He was even supposed to have established a Library of Antioch in 361.[4] This may have existed into the sixth century.[citation needed]
Julian's successor, Valens, who endowed Antioch with a new forum, including a statue of Valentinian on a central column, reopened the great church of Constantine, which stood till the Persian sack in 538 by Chosroes.
In 387, there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order of Theodosius I, and the city was punished by the loss of its metropolitan status.
Justinian I, who renamed it Theopolis ("City of God"), restored many of its public buildings after the great earthquake of 526, whose destructive work was completed by the Persian king, Khosrau I, twelve years later. Antioch lost as many as 300.000 people. Justinian I made an effort to revive it, and Procopius describes his repairing of the walls; but its glory was past.
Antioch gave its name to a certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by literal interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations of Jesus. Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the leaders of this school. The principal local saint was Simeon Stylites, who lived an extremely ascetic life atop a pillar for 40 years some 65 km east of Antioch. His body was brought to the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor Leo.
[edit] Arab period
The ramparts of Antioch climbing Mons Silpius during the Crusades (lower left on the map, above left)
The ramparts of Antioch climbing Mons Silpius during the Crusades (lower left on the map, above left)
In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, Antioch was conquered by the Arabs in the caliphate of al-Rashidun during the Battle of Iron Bridge. The city became known in Arabic as أنطاكيّة Antākiyyah. Since the Umayyad dynasty was unable to penetrate the Anatolian plateau, Antioch found itself on the frontline of the conflicts between two hostile empires during the next 350 years, so that the city went into a precipitous decline.
In 969, the city was recovered for the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas by Michael Burza and Peter the Eunuch. In 1078, Armenians seized power until the Seljuk Turks captured Antioch in 1084, but held it only fourteen years before the Crusaders arrived.
[edit] Crusader era
The Crusaders Siege of Antioch caused the city to suffer much during the First Crusade. Although it contained a large Christian population, it was ultimately betrayed by Islamic allies of Bohemund, prince of Taranto who, following a massacre of the Turkish garrison, became its lord. It remained the capital of the Latin Principality of Antioch for nearly two centuries. It fell at last to the Egyptian Mamluk Sultan Baibars, in 1268, after another siege. In addition to the ravages of war, the city's port became inaccessible to large ships due to the accumulation of sand in the Orontes river bed. As a result, Antioch never recovered as a major city, with much of its former role falling to the port city of Alexandretta (Iskenderun).
Capture of Antioch by Bohemund of Taranto in June 1098
Capture of Antioch by Bohemund of Taranto in June 1098
.
[edit] Archaeology
The Tyche of Antioch, Galleria dei Candelabri, Vatican Museums.
The Tyche of Antioch, Galleria dei Candelabri, Vatican Museums.
Few traces of the once great Roman city are visible today aside from the massive fortification walls that snake up the mountains to the east of the modern city, several aqueducts, and the Church of St Peter (St Peter's Cave Church, Cave-Church of St. Peter), said to be a meeting place of an early Christian community.[5] The majority of the Roman city lies buried beneath deep sediments from the Orontes River, or has been obscured by recent construction.
Between 1932 and 1939, archaeological excavations of Antioch were undertaken under the direction of the "Committee for the Excavation of Antioch and Its Vicinity," which was made up of representatives from the Louvre Museum, the Baltimore Museum of Art, the Worcester Art Museum, Princeton University, and later (1936) also the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University and its affiliate Dumbarton Oaks.
The excavation team failed to find the major buildings they hoped to unearth, including Constantine's Great Octagonal Church or the imperial palace. However, a great accomplishment of the expedition was the discovery of high-quality Roman mosaics from villas and baths in Antioch, Daphne and Selecia. One mosaic includes a border that depicts a walk from Antioch to Daphne, showing many ancient buildings along the way. The mosaics are now displayed in the Hatay Archaeological Museum in Antakya and in the museums of the sponsoring institutions.
A statue in the Vatican and a number of figurines and statuettes perpetuate the type of its great patron goddess and civic symbol, the Tyche (Fortune) of Antioch – a majestic seated figure, crowned with the ramparts of Antioch's walls, with the river Orontes as a youth swimming under her feet.
In recent years, what remains of the Roman and late antique city have suffered severe damage as a result of construction related to the expansion of Antakya. In the 1960s, the last surviving Roman bridge was demolished to make way for a modern two-lane bridge.[citation needed] The northern edge of Antakya has been growing rapidly over recent years, and this construction has begun to expose large portions of the ancient city, which are frequently bulldozed and rarely protected by the local museum.
[edit] Notable people
* John Chrysostom (349-407) Patriarch of Constantinople
* George of Antioch
[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ a b Glanville Downey, Ancient Antioch (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1963)
2. ^ This article incorporates text from the public domain Easton's Bible Dictionary, originally published in 1897.
3. ^ Paul the Apostle
4. ^ [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/privatelibs.htm Private Libraries in Ancient Rome
5. ^ Sacred Destinations retrieved July 1, 2008
[edit] External references
* Karl Otfried Müller, Antiquitates Antiochenae (1839)
* Albin Freund, Beiträge zur antiochenischen und zur konstantinopolitanischen Stadtchronik (1882)
* R. Forster, in Jahrbuch of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii. (1897)
* This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
[edit] See also
* Other cities of the ancient world named Antiochia
* Ignatius of Antioch
* Theophilus of Antioch
* Antiochene rite
* Siege of Antioch
* List of traditional Greek place names
* The Martyr of Antioch
* Antakya Archaeological Museum
* The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch
[edit] External links
* Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Antioch on the Orontes (Antaky), Turkey"
* Antioch (Antakya) Includes timeline, maps, and photo galleries of Antioch's mosaics and artifacts
* Antakya Museum Many photos of the collection in Antakya's museum, in particular Roman mosaics
* The Ancient City of Antioch Map
* The Church of Antioch
* The Catholic Church of Antioch
* Antiochepedia - Musings Upon Ancient Antioch
People getting ready. Dick’s right front tire is low. No, maybe it's the way he pulled up to the curb. I sit in a strai back chair. Doug and Hattie gave me a ride. He 4go his glasses. I thought he was going the wrong way on the wy here, but learned a turn here and a turn there brings us to ern’s. it's the sam distance. Beveraly is trlkg about her voting. She said she didn't know ne of them, so she voted all women. She has a pamphlet to send Sissy a card. It has the address. Sissy Lerdrew. Suncoast calls her Katrina. People arrv and bring food. Oh yeah! I keep 4geg that! Bring food! Bring food! Bring food! Bring food! I zone out reading and writing all day. Sissi’s at 9035 Bryan Dairy road. Largo, Florida 33773. Thy talk a little about Kurk Cameron’s new movie. http://www.wayofthemaster.com/. Debbie calls and I offer to take a mssge. She says she needs to talk to somebody. Some people sy they thought I was somebody. I say I did too. Kathy has been coming, but she's depd. Please pray for her. After prayer, some say thyll call. Roy is sick and away. The phone is aff the hok, bpg. Pat S hsnt been feeling well. Carol is away, being a gma. Gerryh MOnroe’s ex passed. Gerry Rele? Nobody knows. The Bible’s definition:
What is love?
Everybody seems to believe that love is a good thing. However, not all agree what is love. Is love that warm touchy-feely feeling a person has when he is with a familiar person? According to the Bible, love is caring in action. Love isn't what we feel, but what we do.
Rich Deem
Introduction
The true meaning of love, as defined in the Bible, has been corrupted in the common usage of our English language and society. Most often, love is confused with infatuation - that elated, "high" feeling we get when we "fall in love." This kind of "love" is something that lasts typically less than a year, and unless replaced by true love, results in broken relationships.
Origin of Love
The Bible indicates that love is from God. In fact, the Bible says "God is love."1 Love is one of the primary characteristics of God. Likewise, God has endowed us with the capacity for love. This capacity for love is one of the ways in which we are "created in the image of God."2
Different Kinds of Love
The Greek language (the language of the New Testament) uses two different words to describe and define love. The most commonly used Greek word translated "love" in the New Testament is "agape." This love is represented by God's love for us. It is a non-partial, sacrificial love probably best exemplified by God's provision for our rebellion:
"For God so loved (agape) the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him should not perish, but have eternal life. (John 3:16)
The gift3 of God's son as a provision for sin4 was given to all humans,5 regardless of who we are.6 God's love is unconditional.7
In contrast, our love is usually conditional and based upon how other people behave toward us. This kind of love is based upon familiarity and direct interaction. The Greek word "phileo" defines this kind of love, often translated "brotherly love." Phileo is a soulish (connected through our emotions) kind of love - something that can be experienced by both believers and non-believers. This is in contrast to agape, which is love extended through the spirit. Agape love requires a relationship with God through Jesus Christ, since the non-regenerated soul is unable to love unconditionally. Agape love gives and sacrifices expecting nothing back in return.8
Those who have studied the Bible and know about Peter's character know that Peter was ruled by his emotions and often responded to situations emotionally, rather than thinking before acting. Sometimes this kind of response lead to good things (e.g., Peter walking on the water to meet Jesus - Matthew 14:25-33), whereas at other times, Peter's response was inappropriate (He was interrupted by God while suggesting that he build three tabernacles, one for Jesus, one for Moses, and one for Elijah on the Mount of Transfiguration - Matthew 17:4). Peter was quite proficient at expressing phileo love, and was probably very popular because of his dynamic character. However, God wants us to express both phileo love and agape love. Peter expressed this idea in his first epistle:
Since you have in obedience to the truth purified your souls for a sincere love [phileo] of the brethren, fervently love [agape] one another from the heart, (1 Peter 1:22)
Believers in the churches of Asia Minor had already expressed phileo love, but Peter was encouraging them to fervently express agape love as well. If you are a Christian, you are encouraged to express both soulish, familiar love and spirit-led unconditional love. The goal of the Christian is to become "partakers of the divine nature."9 In Peter's second epistle, he says that we are to behave with moral excellence. However, this is not enough. Christians tend to be characterized by non-believers as telling other people how they ought to behave. However, the Christian life should not be restricted to just moral excellence, but, above all else, should include both phileo and agape love:
Now for this very reason also, applying all diligence, in your faith supply moral excellence, and in your moral excellence, knowledge, and in your knowledge, self-control, and in your self-control, perseverance, and in your perseverance, godliness, and in your godliness, brotherly kindness [phileo], and in your brotherly kindness, love [agape]. (2 Peter 1:5-7)
The most famous biblical chapter on love is from 1 Corinthians:
If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing. Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when perfection comes, the imperfect disappears. When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put childish ways behind me. Now we see but a poor reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known. And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love. (1 Corinthians 13:1-13)
This is a description of apage love. It is described as being patient, kind, truthful, unselfish, trusting, believing, hopeful, and enduring. It is not jealous, boastful, arrogant, rude, selfish, or angry. True love never fails. The description perfectly fits God's love toward us, and should be the way we love each other and God. However, I have never met any person who perfectly fulfills this biblical definition of love. The Bible says that this unconditional love is more important than everything else (a partial list includes oratory ability, prophecy, knowledge, faith, philanthropy and hope). All of these things, which are "good" things, will pass away. Only love is eternal, since love will be the basis of eternal life. In fact, when Jesus was asked what the greatest commandment was, He said, "YOU SHALL LOVE THE LORD YOUR GOD WITH ALL YOUR HEART, AND WITH ALL YOUR SOUL, AND WITH ALL YOUR MIND." (Matthew 22:37)9 He then added that the second most important law was "YOU SHALL LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOR AS YOURSELF." Jesus said that the entire law was dependent upon these two commandments.9
Conclusion Top of page
If you are not a Christian, I hope you desire to express love as defined in the Bible. However, wanting to do so and attempting to do so in the power of your own will is guaranteed to fail. This kind of love is only possible through relying on the power of God, through faith in Jesus Christ. Even if you are a Christian, you will not succeed if you do not abide in Christ. May the Lord direct your hearts into the love of God and into the steadfastness of Christ.10
Related Pages Top of page
* God's Outrageous Love
* The Greatest Love Of All
* The New Commandment That is Old
* Tiger Under the Big Tent
References Top of page
1. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love. (1 John 4:8)
2. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. (Genesis 1:27)
3. being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus; (Romans 3:24)
For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Romans 6:23)
For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God; (Ephesians 2:8)
4. In this is love, not that we loved God, but that He loved us and sent His Son to be the propitiation for our sins. (1 John 4:10)
5. So then as through one transgression there resulted condemnation to all men, even so through one act of righteousness there resulted justification of life to all men. (Romans 5:18)
For the death that He [Jesus] died, He died to sin, once for all; but the life that He lives, He lives to God. (Romans 6:10)
...God our Savior, who desires all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth. (1 Timothy 2:3-4)
For it is for this we labor and strive, because we have fixed our hope on the living God, who is the Savior of all men, especially of believers. (1 Timothy 4:10)
For the grace of God has appeared, bringing salvation to all men, (Titus 2:11)
and He Himself is the propitiation for our sins; and not for ours only, but also for those of the whole world. (1 John 2:2)
6. For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. (Romans 1:16)
For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; for the same Lord is Lord of all, abounding in riches for all who call upon Him; (Romans 10:12)
There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free man, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus. (Galatians 3:28)
7. But God demonstrates His own love toward us, in that while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us. (Romans 5:8)
8. But love [agape] your enemies, do good to them, and lend to them without expecting to get anything back. Then your reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High, because he is kind to the ungrateful and wicked. (Luke 6:35)
9. For by these He has granted to us His precious and magnificent promises, so that by them you may become partakers of the divine nature, having escaped the corruption that is in the world by lust. (2 Peter 1:4)
10. "Teacher, which is the great commandment in the Law?" And He said to him, "'YOU SHALL LOVE THE LORD YOUR GOD WITH ALL YOUR HEART, AND WITH ALL YOUR SOUL, AND WITH ALL YOUR MIND.' This is the great and foremost commandment. The second is like it, 'YOU SHALL LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOR AS YOURSELF.' On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets."(Matthew 22:36-40)
11. 2 Thessalonians 3:5
Scripture References (phileo)
The Pharisees, who loved money, heard all this and were sneering at Jesus. (Luke 16:14)
The next day we landed at Sidon; and Julius, in kindness to Paul, allowed him to go to his friends so they might provide for his needs. (Acts 27:3)
The islanders showed us unusual kindness. They built a fire and welcomed us all because it was raining and cold. (Acts 28:2)
Be devoted to one another in brotherly love. Honor one another above yourselves. (Romans 12:10)
Now about brotherly love we do not need to write to you, for you yourselves have been taught by God to love each other. (1 Thessalonians 4:9)
For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil. Some people, eager for money, have wandered from the faith and pierced themselves with many griefs. (1 Timothy 6:10)
Their teaching will spread like gangrene. Among them are Hymenaeus and Philetus, (2 Timothy 2:17)
People will be lovers of themselves, lovers of money, boastful, proud, abusive, disobedient to their parents, ungrateful, unholy, (2 Timothy 3:2)
treacherous, rash, conceited, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God-- (2 Timothy 3:4)
Rather he must be hospitable, one who loves what is good, who is self-controlled, upright, holy and disciplined. (Titus 1:8)
Then they can train the younger women to love their husbands and children, (Titus 2:4)
But when the kindness and love of God our Savior appeared, (Titus 3:4)
Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother, To Philemon our dear friend and fellow worker, (Philemon 1:1)
Keep on loving each other as brothers. (Hebrews 13:1)
Now that you have purified yourselves by obeying the truth so that you have sincere love for your brothers, love one another deeply, from the heart. (1 Peter 1:22)
Finally, all of you, live in harmony with one another; be sympathetic, love as brothers, be compassionate and humble. (1 Peter 3:8)
Greet one another with a kiss of love. Peace to all of you who are in Christ. (1 Peter 5:14)
and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, love. (2 Peter 1:7)
Scripture References (agape)
And a voice from heaven said, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased." (Matthew 3:17)
"You have heard that it was said, 'Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' (Matthew 5:43)
But I tell you: Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, (Matthew 5:44)
If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? (Matthew 5:46)
"No one can serve two masters. Either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve both God and Money. (Matthew 6:24)
"Here is my servant whom I have chosen, the one I love, in whom I delight; I will put my Spirit on him, and he will proclaim justice to the nations. (Matthew 12:18)
While he was still speaking, a bright cloud enveloped them, and a voice from the cloud said, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased. Listen to him!" (Matthew 17:5)
honor your father and mother,' and 'love your neighbor as yourself.'" (Matthew 19:19)
Jesus replied: "'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.' (Matthew 22:37)
And the second is like it: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' (Matthew 22:39)
Because of the increase of wickedness, the love of most will grow cold, (Matthew 24:12)
And a voice came from heaven: "You are my Son, whom I love; with you I am well pleased." (Mark 1:11)
Then a cloud appeared and enveloped them, and a voice came from the cloud: "This is my Son, whom I love. Listen to him!" (Mark 9:7)
Jesus looked at him and loved him. "One thing you lack," he said. "Go, sell everything you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me." (Mark 10:21)
"He had one left to send, a son, whom he loved. He sent him last of all, saying, 'They will respect my son.' (Mark 12:6)
Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength.' (Mark 12:30)
The second is this: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' There is no commandment greater than these." (Mark 12:31)
To love him with all your heart, with all your understanding and with all your strength, and to love your neighbor as yourself is more important than all burnt offerings and sacrifices." (Mark 12:33)
and the Holy Spirit descended on him in bodily form like a dove. And a voice came from heaven: "You are my Son, whom I love; with you I am well pleased." (Luke 3:22)
"But I tell you who hear me: Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, (Luke 6:27)
"If you love those who love you, what credit is that to you? Even 'sinners' love those who love them. (Luke 6:32)
But love your enemies, do good to them, and lend to them without expecting to get anything back. Then your reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High, because he is kind to the ungrateful and wicked. (Luke 6:35)
because he loves our nation and has built our synagogue." (Luke 7:5)
Neither of them had the money to pay him back, so he canceled the debts of both. Now which of them will love him more?" (Luke 7:42)
Therefore, I tell you, her many sins have been forgiven--for she loved much. But he who has been forgiven little loves little." (Luke 7:47)
He answered: "'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind' ; and, 'Love your neighbor as yourself.'" (Luke 10:27)
"Woe to you Pharisees, because you give God a tenth of your mint, rue and all other kinds of garden herbs, but you neglect justice and the love of God. You should have practiced the latter without leaving the former undone. (Luke 11:42)
"Woe to you Pharisees, because you love the most important seats in the synagogues and greetings in the marketplaces. (Luke 11:43)
"No servant can serve two masters. Either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve both God and Money." (Luke 16:13)
"Then the owner of the vineyard said, 'What shall I do? I will send my son, whom I love; perhaps they will respect him.' (Luke 20:13)
"For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. (John 3:16)
This is the verdict: Light has come into the world, but men loved darkness instead of light because their deeds were evil. (John 3:19)
The Father loves the Son and has placed everything in his hands. (John 3:35)
but I know you. I know that you do not have the love of God in your hearts. (John 5:42)
Jesus said to them, "If God were your Father, you would love me, for I came from God and now am here. I have not come on my own; but he sent me. (John 8:42)
The reason my Father loves me is that I lay down my life--only to take it up again. (John 10:17)
Jesus loved Martha and her sister and Lazarus. (John 11:5)
for they loved praise from men more than praise from God. (John 12:43)
It was just before the Passover Feast. Jesus knew that the time had come for him to leave this world and go to the Father. Having loved his own who were in the world, he now showed them the full extent of his love. (John 13:1)
One of them, the disciple whom Jesus loved, was reclining next to him. (John 13:23)
"A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. (John 13:34)
By this all men will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another." (John 13:35)
"If you love me, you will obey what I command. (John 14:15)
Whoever has my commands and obeys them, he is the one who loves me. He who loves me will be loved by my Father, and I too will love him and show myself to him." (John 14:21)
Jesus replied, "If anyone loves me, he will obey my teaching. My Father will love him, and we will come to him and make our home with him. (John 14:23)
He who does not love me will not obey my teaching. These words you hear are not my own; they belong to the Father who sent me. (John 14:24)
"You heard me say, 'I am going away and I am coming back to you.' If you loved me, you would be glad that I am going to the Father, for the Father is greater than I. (John 14:28)
but the world must learn that I love the Father and that I do exactly what my Father has commanded me. "Come now; let us leave. (John 14:31)
"As the Father has loved me, so have I loved you. Now remain in my love. (John 15:9)
If you obey my commands, you will remain in my love, just as I have obeyed my Father's commands and remain in his love. (John 15:10)
My command is this: Love each other as I have loved you. (John 15:12)
Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends. (John 15:13)
This is my command: Love each other. (John 15:17)
I in them and you in me. May they be brought to complete unity to let the world know that you sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me. (John 17:23)
"Father, I want those you have given me to be with me where I am, and to see my glory, the glory you have given me because you loved me before the creation of the world. (John 17:24)
I have made you known to them, and will continue to make you known in order that the love you have for me may be in them and that I myself may be in them." (John 17:26)
When Jesus saw his mother there, and the disciple whom he loved standing nearby, he said to his mother, "Dear woman, here is your son," (John 19:26)
Then the disciple whom Jesus loved said to Peter, "It is the Lord!" As soon as Simon Peter heard him say, "It is the Lord," he wrapped his outer garment around him (for he had taken it off) and jumped into the water. (John 21:7)
When they had finished eating, Jesus said to Simon Peter, "Simon son of John, do you truly love me more than these?" "Yes, Lord," he said, "you know that I love you." Jesus said, "Feed my lambs." (John 21:15)
Again Jesus said, "Simon son of John, do you truly love me?" He answered, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." Jesus said, "Take care of my sheep." (John 21:16)
Peter turned and saw that the disciple whom Jesus loved was following them. (This was the one who had leaned back against Jesus at the supper and had said, "Lord, who is going to betray you?") (John 21:20)
So we all agreed to choose some men and send them to you with our dear friends Barnabas and Paul-- (Acts 15:25)
To all in Rome who are loved by God and called to be saints: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ. (Romans 1:7)
And hope does not disappoint us, because God has poured out his love into our hearts by the Holy Spirit, whom he has given us. (Romans 5:5)
But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us. (Romans 5:8)
And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. (Romans 8:28)
Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall trouble or hardship or persecution or famine or nakedness or danger or sword? (Romans 8:35)
No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us. (Romans 8:37)
neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Romans 8:39)
Just as it is written: "Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated." (Romans 9:13)
As he says in Hosea: "I will call them 'my people' who are not my people; and I will call her 'my loved one' who is not my loved one," (Romans 9:25)
As far as the gospel is concerned, they are enemies on your account; but as far as election is concerned, they are loved on account of the patriarchs, (Romans 11:28)
Love must be sincere. Hate what is evil; cling to what is good. (Romans 12:9)
Do not take revenge, my friends, but leave room for God's wrath, for it is written: "It is mine to avenge; I will repay," says the Lord. (Romans 12:19)
Let no debt remain outstanding, except the continuing debt to love one another, for he who loves his fellowman has fulfilled the law. (Romans 13:8)
The commandments, "Do not commit adultery," "Do not murder," "Do not steal," "Do not covet," and whatever other commandment there may be, are summed up in this one rule: "Love your neighbor as yourself." (Romans 13:9)
Love does no harm to its neighbor. Therefore love is the fulfillment of the law. (Romans 13:10)
If your brother is distressed because of what you eat, you are no longer acting in love. Do not by your eating destroy your brother for whom Christ died. (Romans 14:15)
I urge you, brothers, by our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love of the Spirit, to join me in my struggle by praying to God for me. (Romans 15:30)
Greet also the church that meets at their house. Greet my dear friend Epenetus, who was the first convert to Christ in the province of Asia. (Romans 16:5)
Greet Ampliatus, whom I love in the Lord. (Romans 16:8)
Greet Urbanus, our fellow worker in Christ, and my dear friend Stachys. (Romans 16:9)
Greet Tryphena and Tryphosa, those women who work hard in the Lord. Greet my dear friend Persis, another woman who has worked very hard in the Lord. (Romans 16:12)
However, as it is written: "No eye has seen, no ear has heard, no mind has conceived what God has prepared for those who love him"-- (1 Corinthians 2:9)
I am not writing this to shame you, but to warn you, as my dear children. (1 Corinthians 4:14)
For this reason I am sending to you Timothy, my son whom I love, who is faithful in the Lord. He will remind you of my way of life in Christ Jesus, which agrees with what I teach everywhere in every church. (1 Corinthians 4:17)
What do you prefer? Shall I come to you with a whip, or in love and with a gentle spirit? (1 Corinthians 4:21)
Now about food sacrificed to idols: We know that we all possess knowledge. Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up. (1 Corinthians 8:1)
But the man who loves God is known by God. (1 Corinthians 8:3)
Therefore, my dear friends, flee from idolatry. (1 Corinthians 10:14)
If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. (1 Corinthians 13:1)
If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. (1 Corinthians 13:2)
If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing. (1 Corinthians 13:3)
Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. (1 Corinthians 13:4)
Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. (1 Corinthians 13:8)
And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love. (1 Corinthians 13:13)
Follow the way of love and eagerly desire spiritual gifts, especially the gift of prophecy. (1 Corinthians 14:1)
Therefore, my dear brothers, stand firm. Let nothing move you. Always give yourselves fully to the work of the Lord, because you know that your labor in the Lord is not in vain. (1 Corinthians 15:58)
Do everything in love. (1 Corinthians 16:14)
My love to all of you in Christ Jesus. Amen. (1 Corinthians 16:24)
For I wrote you out of great distress and anguish of heart and with many tears, not to grieve you but to let you know the depth of my love for you. (2 Corinthians 2:4)
I urge you, therefore, to reaffirm your love for him. (2 Corinthians 2:8)
For Christ's love compels us, because we are convinced that one died for all, and therefore all died. (2 Corinthians 5:14)
in purity, understanding, patience and kindness; in the Holy Spirit and in sincere love; (2 Corinthians 6:6)
Since we have these promises, dear friends, let us purify ourselves from everything that contaminates body and spirit, perfecting holiness out of reverence for God. (2 Corinthians 7:1)
But just as you excel in everything--in faith, in speech, in knowledge, in complete earnestness and in your love for us --see that you also excel in this grace of giving. (2 Corinthians 8:7)
I am not commanding you, but I want to test the sincerity of your love by comparing it with the earnestness of others. (2 Corinthians 8:8)
Therefore show these men the proof of your love and the reason for our pride in you, so that the churches can see it. (2 Corinthians 8:24)
Each man should give what he has decided in his heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver. (2 Corinthians 9:7)
Why? Because I do not love you? God knows I do! (2 Corinthians 11:11)
So I will very gladly spend for you everything I have and expend myself as well. If I love you more, will you love me less? (2 Corinthians 12:15)
Have you been thinking all along that we have been defending ourselves to you? We have been speaking in the sight of God as those in Christ; and everything we do, dear friends, is for your strengthening. (2 Corinthians 12:19)
Finally, brothers, good-by. Aim for perfection, listen to my appeal, be of one mind, live in peace. And the God of love and peace will be with you. (2 Corinthians 13:11)
May the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all. (2 Corinthians 13:14)
I have been crucified with Christ and I no longer live, but Christ lives in me. The life I live in the body, I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself for me. (Galatians 2:20)
For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value. The only thing that counts is faith expressing itself through love. (Galatians 5:6)
You, my brothers, were called to be free. But do not use your freedom to indulge the sinful nature ; rather, serve one another in love. (Galatians 5:13)
The entire law is summed up in a single command: "Love your neighbor as yourself." (Galatians 5:14)
But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, (Galatians 5:22)
For he chose us in him before the creation of the world to be holy and blameless in his sight. In love (Ephesians 1:4)
to the praise of his glorious grace, which he has freely given us in the One he loves. (Ephesians 1:6)
For this reason, ever since I heard about your faith in the Lord Jesus and your love for all the saints, (Ephesians 1:15)
But because of his great love for us, God, who is rich in mercy, (Ephesians 2:4)
so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith. And I pray that you, being rooted and established in love, (Ephesians 3:17)
and to know this love that surpasses knowledge--that you may be filled to the measure of all the fullness of God. (Ephesians 3:19)
Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love. (Ephesians 4:2)
Instead, speaking the truth in love, we will in all things grow up into him who is the Head, that is, Christ. (Ephesians 4:15)
From him the whole body, joined and held together by every supporting ligament, grows and builds itself up in love, as each part does its work. (Ephesians 4:16)
Be imitators of God, therefore, as dearly loved children (Ephesians 5:1)
and live a life of love, just as Christ loved us and gave himself up for us as a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God. (Ephesians 5:2)
Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her (Ephesians 5:25)
In this same way, husbands ought to love their wives as their own bodies. He who loves his wife loves himself. (Ephesians 5:28)
However, each one of you also must love his wife as he loves himself, and the wife must respect her husband. (Ephesians 5:33)
Tychicus, the dear brother and faithful servant in the Lord, will tell you everything, so that you also may know how I am and what I am doing. (Ephesians 6:21)
Peace to the brothers, and love with faith from God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. (Ephesians 6:23)
Grace to all who love our Lord Jesus Christ with an undying love. (Ephesians 6:24)
And this is my prayer: that your love may abound more and more in knowledge and depth of insight, (Philippians 1:9)
The latter do so in love, knowing that I am put here for the defense of the gospel. (Philippians 1:16)
If you have any encouragement from being united with Christ, if any comfort from his love, if any fellowship with the Spirit, if any tenderness and compassion, (Philippians 2:1)
then make my joy complete by being like-minded, having the same love, being one in spirit and purpose. (Philippians 2:2)
Therefore, my dear friends, as you have always obeyed--not only in my presence, but now much more in my absence--continue to work out your salvation with fear and trembling, (Philippians 2:12)
Therefore, my brothers, you whom I love and long for, my joy and crown, that is how you should stand firm in the Lord, dear friends! (Philippians 4:1)
because we have heard of your faith in Christ Jesus and of the love you have for all the saints-- (Colossians 1:4)
You learned it from Epaphras, our dear fellow servant, who is a faithful minister of Christ on our behalf, (Colossians 1:7)
and who also told us of your love in the Spirit. (Colossians 1:8)
For he has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves, (Colossians 1:13)
My purpose is that they may be encouraged in heart and united in love, so that they may have the full riches of complete understanding, in order that they may know the mystery of God, namely, Christ, (Colossians 2:2)
Therefore, as God's chosen people, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. (Colossians 3:12)
And over all these virtues put on love, which binds them all together in perfect unity. (Colossians 3:14)
Husbands, love your wives and do not be harsh with them. (Colossians 3:19)
Tychicus will tell you all the news about me. He is a dear brother, a faithful minister and fellow servant in the Lord. (Colossians 4:7)
He is coming with Onesimus, our faithful and dear brother, who is one of you. They will tell you everything that is happening here. (Colossians 4:9)
Our dear friend Luke, the doctor, and Demas send greetings. (Colossians 4:14)
We continually remember before our God and Father your work produced by faith, your labor prompted by love, and your endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ. (1 Thessalonians 1:3)
For we know, brothers loved by God, that he has chosen you, (1 Thessalonians 1:4)
We loved you so much that we were delighted to share with you not only the gospel of God but our lives as well, because you had become so dear to us. (1 Thessalonians 2:8)
But Timothy has just now come to us from you and has brought good news about your faith and love. He has told us that you always have pleasant memories of us and that you long to see us, just as we also long to see you. (1 Thessalonians 3:6)
May the Lord make your love increase and overflow for each other and for everyone else, just as ours does for you. (1 Thessalonians 3:12)
Now about brotherly love we do not need to write to you, for you yourselves have been taught by God to love each other. (1 Thessalonians 4:9)
But since we belong to the day, let us be self-controlled, putting on faith and love as a breastplate, and the hope of salvation as a helmet. (1 Thessalonians 5:8)
Hold them in the highest regard in love because of their work. Live in peace with each other. (1 Thessalonians 5:13)
We ought always to thank God for you, brothers, and rightly so, because your faith is growing more and more, and the love every one of you has for each other is increasing. (2 Thessalonians 1:3)
and in every sort of evil that deceives those who are perishing. They perish because they refused to love the truth and so be saved. (2 Thessalonians 2:10)
But we ought always to thank God for you, brothers loved by the Lord, because from the beginning God chose you to be saved through the sanctifying work of the Spirit and through belief in the truth. (2 Thessalonians 2:13)
May our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved us and by his grace gave us eternal encouragement and good hope, (2 Thessalonians 2:16)
May the Lord direct your hearts into God's love and Christ's perseverance. (2 Thessalonians 3:5)
The goal of this command is love, which comes from a pure heart and a good conscience and a sincere faith. (1 Timothy 1:5)
The grace of our Lord was poured out on me abundantly, along with the faith and love that are in Christ Jesus. (1 Timothy 1:14)
But women will be saved through childbearing--if they continue in faith, love and holiness with propriety. (1 Timothy 2:15)
Don't let anyone look down on you because you are young, but set an example for the believers in speech, in life, in love, in faith and in purity. (1 Timothy 4:12)
Those who have believing masters are not to show less respect for them because they are brothers. Instead, they are to serve them even better, because those who benefit from their service are believers, and dear to them. These are the things you are to teach and urge on them. (1 Timothy 6:2)
But you, man of God, flee from all this, and pursue righteousness, godliness, faith, love, endurance and gentleness. (1 Timothy 6:11)
To Timothy, my dear son: Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord. (2 Timothy 1:2)
For God did not give us a spirit of timidity, but a spirit of power, of love and of self-discipline. (2 Timothy 1:7)
What you heard from me, keep as the pattern of sound teaching, with faith and love in Christ Jesus. (2 Timothy 1:13)
Flee the evil desires of youth, and pursue righteousness, faith, love and peace, along with those who call on the Lord out of a pure heart. (2 Timothy 2:22)
You, however, know all about my teaching, my way of life, my purpose, faith, patience, love, endurance, (2 Timothy 3:10)
Now there is in store for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will award to me on that day--and not only to me, but also to all who have longed for his appearing. (2 Timothy 4:8)
for Demas, because he loved this world, has deserted me and has gone to Thessalonica. Crescens has gone to Galatia, and Titus to Dalmatia. (2 Timothy 4:10)
Teach the older men to be temperate, worthy of respect, self-controlled, and sound in faith, in love and in endurance. (Titus 2:2)
Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother, To Philemon our dear friend and fellow worker, (Philemon 1:1)
because I hear about your faith in the Lord Jesus and your love for all the saints. (Philemon 1:5)
Your love has given me great joy and encouragement, because you, brother, have refreshed the hearts of the saints. (Philemon 1:7)
yet I appeal to you on the basis of love. I then, as Paul--an old man and now also a prisoner of Christ Jesus-- (Philemon 1:9)
no longer as a slave, but better than a slave, as a dear brother. He is very dear to me but even dearer to you, both as a man and as a brother in the Lord. (Philemon 1:16)
You have loved righteousness and hated wickedness; therefore God, your God, has set you above your companions by anointing you with the oil of joy." (Hebrews 1:9)
Even though we speak like this, dear friends, we are confident of better things in your case--things that accompany salvation. (Hebrews 6:9)
God is not unjust; he will not forget your work and the love you have shown him as you have helped his people and continue to help them. (Hebrews 6:10)
And let us consider how we may spur one another on toward love and good deeds. (Hebrews 10:24)
because the Lord disciplines those he loves, and he punishes everyone he accepts as a son." (Hebrews 12:6)
Blessed is the man who perseveres under trial, because when he has stood the test, he will receive the crown of life that God has promised to those who love him. (James 1:12)
Don't be deceived, my dear brothers. (James 1:16)
My dear brothers, take note of this: Everyone should be quick to listen, slow to speak and slow to become angry, (James 1:19)
Listen, my dear brothers: Has not God chosen those who are poor in the eyes of the world to be rich in faith and to inherit the kingdom he promised those who love him? (James 2:5)
If you really keep the royal law found in Scripture, "Love your neighbor as yourself," you are doing right. (James 2:8)
Though you have not seen him, you love him; and even though you do not see him now, you believe in him and are filled with an inexpressible and glorious joy, (1 Peter 1:8)
Now that you have purified yourselves by obeying the truth so that you have sincere love for your brothers, love one another deeply, from the heart. (1 Peter 1:22)
Dear friends, I urge you, as aliens and strangers in the world, to abstain from sinful desires, which war against your soul. (1 Peter 2:11)
Show proper respect to everyone: Love the brotherhood of believers, fear God, honor the king. (1 Peter 2:17)
For, "Whoever would love life and see good days must keep his tongue from evil and his lips from deceitful speech. (1 Peter 3:10)
Above all, love each other deeply, because love covers over a multitude of sins. (1 Peter 4:8)
Dear friends, do not be surprised at the painful trial you are suffering, as though something strange were happening to you. (1 Peter 4:12)
Greet one another with a kiss of love. Peace to all of you who are in Christ. (1 Peter 5:14)
and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, love. (2 Peter 1:7)
For he received honor and glory from God the Father when the voice came to him from the Majestic Glory, saying, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased." (2 Peter 1:17)
They have left the straight way and wandered off to follow the way of Balaam son of Beor, who loved the wages of wickedness. (2 Peter 2:15)
Dear friends, this is now my second letter to you. I have written both of them as reminders to stimulate you to wholesome thinking. (2 Peter 3:1)
But do not forget this one thing, dear friends: With the Lord a day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like a day. (2 Peter 3:8)
So then, dear friends, since you are looking forward to this, make every effort to be found spotless, blameless and at peace with him. (2 Peter 3:14)
Bear in mind that our Lord's patience means salvation, just as our dear brother Paul also wrote you with the wisdom that God gave him. (2 Peter 3:15)
Therefore, dear friends, since you already know this, be on your guard so that you may not be carried away by the error of lawless men and fall from your secure position. (2 Peter 3:17)
But if anyone obeys his word, God's love is truly made complete in him. This is how we know we are in him: (1 John 2:5)
Dear friends, I am not writing you a new command but an old one, which you have had since the beginning. This old command is the message you have heard. (1 John 2:7)
Whoever loves his brother lives in the light, and there is nothing in him to make him stumble. (1 John 2:10)
Do not love the world or anything in the world. If anyone loves the world, the love of the Father is not in him. (1 John 2:15)
How great is the love the Father has lavished on us, that we should be called children of God! And that is what we are! The reason the world does not know us is that it did not know him. (1 John 3:1)
Dear friends, now we are children of God, and what we will be has not yet been made known. But we know that when he appears, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is. (1 John 3:2)
This is how we know who the children of God are and who the children of the devil are: Anyone who does not do what is right is not a child of God; nor is anyone who does not love his brother. (1 John 3:10)
This is the message you heard from the beginning: We should love one another. (1 John 3:11)
We know that we have passed from death to life, because we love our brothers. Anyone who does not love remains in death. (1 John 3:14)
This is how we know what love is: Jesus Christ laid down his life for us. And we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers. (1 John 3:16)
If anyone has material possessions and sees his brother in need but has no pity on him, how can the love of God be in him? (1 John 3:17)
Dear children, let us not love with words or tongue but with actions and in truth. (1 John 3:18)
Dear friends, if our hearts do not condemn us, we have confidence before God (1 John 3:21)
And this is his command: to believe in the name of his Son, Jesus Christ, and to love one another as he commanded us. (1 John 3:23)
Dear friends, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God, because many false prophets have gone out into the world. (1 John 4:1)
Dear friends, let us love one another, for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. (1 John 4:7)
Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love. (1 John 4:8)
This is how God showed his love among us: He sent his one and only Son into the world that we might live through him. (1 John 4:9)
This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for our sins. (1 John 4:10)
Dear friends, since God so loved us, we also ought to love one another. (1 John 4:11)
No one has ever seen God; but if we love one another, God lives in us and his love is made complete in us. (1 John 4:12)
And so we know and rely on the love God has for us. God is love. Whoever lives in love lives in God, and God in him. (1 John 4:16)
In this way, love is made complete among us so that we will have confidence on the day of judgment, because in this world we are like him. (1 John 4:17)
There is no fear in love. But perfect love drives out fear, because fear has to do with punishment. The one who fears is not made perfect in love. (1 John 4:18)
We love because he first loved us. (1 John 4:19)
If anyone says, "I love God," yet hates his brother, he is a liar. For anyone who does not love his brother, whom he has seen, cannot love God, whom he has not seen. (1 John 4:20)
And he has given us this command: Whoever loves God must also love his brother. (1 John 4:21)
Everyone who believes that Jesus is the Christ is born of God, and everyone who loves the father loves his child as well. (1 John 5:1)
This is how we know that we love the children of God: by loving God and carrying out his commands. (1 John 5:2)
This is love for God: to obey his commands. And his commands are not burdensome, (1 John 5:3)
The elder, To the chosen lady and her children, whom I love in the truth--and not I only, but also all who know the truth-- (2 John 1:1)
Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and from Jesus Christ, the Father's Son, will be with us in truth and love. (2 John 1:3)
And now, dear lady, I am not writing you a new command but one we have had from the beginning. I ask that we love one another. (2 John 1:5)
And this is love: that we walk in obedience to his commands. As you have heard from the beginning, his command is that you walk in love. (2 John 1:6)
The elder, To my dear friend Gaius, whom I love in the truth. (3 John 1:1)
Dear friend, I pray that you may enjoy good health and that all may go well with you, even as your soul is getting along well. (3 John 1:2)
Dear friend, you are faithful in what you are doing for the brothers, even though they are strangers to you. (3 John 1:5)
They have told the church about your love. You will do well to send them on their way in a manner worthy of God. (3 John 1:6)
Dear friend, do not imitate what is evil but what is good. Anyone who does what is good is from God. Anyone who does what is evil has not seen God. (3 John 1:11)
Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James, To those who have been called, who are loved by God the Father and kept by Jesus Christ: (Jude 1:1)
Mercy, peace and love be yours in abundance. (Jude 1:2)
Dear friends, although I was very eager to write to you about the salvation we share, I felt I had to write and urge you to contend for the faith that was once for all entrusted to the saints. (Jude 1:3)
These men are blemishes at your love feasts, eating with you without the slightest qualm--shepherds who feed only themselves. They are clouds without rain, blown along by the wind; autumn trees, without fruit and uprooted--twice dead. (Jude 1:12)
But, dear friends, remember what the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ foretold. (Jude 1:17)
But you, dear friends, build yourselves up in your most holy faith and pray in the Holy Spirit. (Jude 1:20)
Keep yourselves in God's love as you wait for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ to bring you to eternal life. (Jude 1:21)
and from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth. To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood, (Revelation 1:5)
Yet I hold this against you: You have forsaken your first love. (Revelation 2:4)
I know your deeds, your love and faith, your service and perseverance, and that you are now doing more than you did at first. (Revelation 2:19)
I will make those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who claim to be Jews though they are not, but are liars--I will make them come and fall down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you. (Revelation 3:9)
They overcame him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death. (Revelation 12:11)
They marched across the breadth of the earth and surrounded the camp of God's people, the city he loves. But fire came down from heaven and devoured them. (Revelation 20:9) Gwyn’s daughter’s car is out of commission. I think back to those days. To school, to work, to home. Breakdown! Breakdown! Breakdown! Sandra isn’t here. She needs a ride. Praise the Lord I had a ride with Doug and Les if not them. Get her number. I didn't bring my puzzle. Forgot. A wife is letting her husband have it and I frown, “Husbands.” . Paul’s night vision. Funeral of St. Stephen - Saul’s continued Persecution - Flight of the Christians - Philip and the Samaritans - Saul’s Journey to Damascus - Aretas, King of Petra - Roads from Jerusalem to Damascus - Neapolis - History and Description of Damascus - The Narratives of the Miracle - It was a real Vision of Jesus Christ - Three Days in Damascus - Ananias - Baptism and first Preaching of Saul - He retires into Arabia - Meaning of the Term Arabia - Petra and the Desert - Motives to Conversion - Conspiracy at Damascus - Escape to Jerusalem - Barnabas - Fortnight with St. Peter - Conspiracy - Vision in the Temple - Saul withdraws to Syria and Cilicia. Paul in Macedonia. A country lying to the North of Greece, afterward enlarged and formed into a Roman province; it is to the latter that the term always refers when used in the New Testament.
I. The Macedonian People and Land.
Ethnologists differ about the origin of the Macedonian race and the degree of its affinity to the Hellenes. But we find a well-marked tradition in ancient times that the race comprised a Hellenic element and a non-Hellenic, though Aryan, element, closely akin to the Phrygian and other Thracian stocks. The dominant race, the Macedonians in the narrower sense of the term, including the royal family, which was acknowledged to be Greek and traced its descent through the Temenids of Argos back to Heracles (Herodotus v.22), settled in the fertile plains about the lower Haliacmon (Karasu or Vistritza) and Axius (Vardar), to the North and Northwest of the Thermaic Gulf. Their capital, which was originally at Edessa or Aegae (Vodhena), was afterward transferred to Pella by Philip II. The other and older element--the Lyncestians, Orestians, Pelagonians and other tribes--were pushed back northward and westward into the highlands, where they struggled for generations to maintain their independence and weakened the Macedonian state by constant risings and by making common cause with the wild hordes of Illyrians and Thracians, with whom we find the Macedonian kings in frequent conflict. In order to maintain their position they entered into a good understanding from time to time with the states of Greece or acknowledged temporarily Persian suzerainty, and thus gradually extended the sphere of their power.
II. History of Macedonia.
Herodotus (viii.137-39) traces the royal line from Perdiccas I through Argaeus, Philip I, Aeropus, Alcetas and Amyntas I to Alexander I, who was king at the time of the Persian invasions of Greece. He and his son and grandson, Perdiccas II and Archelaus, did much to consolidate Macedonian power, but the death of Archelaus (399 BC) was followed by 40 years of disunion and weakness.
1. Philip and Alexander:
With the accession of Philip II, son of Amyntas II, in 359 BC, Macedonia came under the rule of a man powerful alike in body and in mind, an able general and an astute diplomatist, one, moreover, who started out with a clear perception of the end at which he must aim, the creation of a great national army and a nation-state, and worked consistently and untiringly throughout his reign of 23 years to gain that object. He welded the Macedonian tribes into a single nation, won by force and fraud the important positions of Amphipolis, Pydna, Potidaea, Olynthus, Abdera and Maronea, and secured a plentiful supply of gold by founding Philippi on the site of Crenides. Gradually extending his rule over barbarians and Greeks alike, he finally, after the battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), secured his recognition by the Greeks themselves as captain-general of the Hellenic states and leader of a Greco-Macedonian crusade against Persia. On the eve of this projected eastern expedition, however, he was assassinated by order of his dishonored wife Olympias (336 BC), whose son, Alexander the Great, succeeded to the throne. After securing his hold on Thrace, Illyria and Greece, Alexander turned eastward and, in a series of brilliant campaigns, overthrew the Persian empire. The battle of the Granicus (334 BC) was followed by the submission or subjugation of most of Asia Minor. By the battle of Issus (333), in which Darius himself was defeated, Alexander's way was opened to Phoenicia and Egypt; Darius' second defeat, at Arbela (331), sealed the fate of the Persian power. Babylon, Susa, Persepolis and Ecbatana were taken in turn, and Alexander then pressed eastward through Hyrcania, Aria, Arachosia, Bactria and Sogdiana to India, which he conquered as far as the Hyphasis (Sutlej): thence he returned through Gedrosia, Carmania and Persis to Babylon, to make preparations for the conquest of Arabia. A sketch of his career is given in 1 Macc 1:1-7, where he is spoken of as "Alexander the Macedonian, the son of Philip, who came out of the land of Chittim" (1:1): his invasion of Persia is also referred to in 1 Macc 6:2, where he is described as "the Macedonian king, who reigned first among the Greeks," i.e. the first who united in a single empire all the Greek states, except those which lay to the West of the Adriatic. It is the conception of the Macedonian power as the deadly foe of Persia which is responsible for the description of Haman in Additions to Esther 16:10 as a Macedonian, "an alien in truth from the Persian blood," and for the attribution to him of a plot to transfer the Persian empire to the Macedonians (verse 14), and this same thought appears in the Septuagint's rendering of the Hebrew Agagite (`aghaghi) in Est 9:24 as Macedonian (Makedon).
2. Roman Intervention:
Alexander died in June 323 BC, and his empire fell a prey to the rivalries of his chief generals (1 Macc 1:9); after a period of struggle and chaos, three powerful kingdoms were formed, taking their names from Macedonia, Syria and Egypt. Even in Syria, however, Macedonian influences remained strong, and we find Macedonian troops in the service of the Seleucid monarchs (2 Macc 8:20). In 215 King Philip V, son of Demetrius II and successor of Antigonus Doson (229-220 BC), formed an alliance with Hannibal, who had defeated the Roman forces at Lake Trasimene (217) and at Cannae (216), and set about trying to recover Illyria. After some years of desultory and indecisive warfare, peace was concluded in 205, Philip binding himself to abstain from attacking the Roman possessions on the East of the Adriatic. The Second Macedonian War, caused by a combined attack of Antiochus III of Syria and Philip of Macedon on Egypt, broke out in 200 and ended 3 years later in the crushing defeat of Philip's forces by T. Quinctius Flamininus at Cynoscephalae in Thessaly (compare 1 Macc 8:5). By the treaty which followed this battle, Philip surrendered his conquests in Greece, Illyria, Thrace, Asia Minor and the Aegean, gave up his fleet, reduced his army to 5,000 men, and undertook to declare no war and conclude no alliance without Roman consent. Looking for a place of prayer by the river in Philippi, Paul encounters Lydia and other women gathered there. Lydia, a successful business woman and homemaker, responded to Paul’s gospel message, and her entire household became believers. She opened her home to Paul and his fellow travelers. We are reminded of the importance of showing hospitality to others. The following story is that of a slave girl with an evil spirit that allowed her to foretell the future, and Paul’s releasing her from that spirit. Mrs. Kraft cautions us about believing that miracles are always from God, and warns about harmful Halloween and occult practices.
Study Questions
Read Acts 16:6-40.
1. Look at the maps in the back of your Bible to orient you. What is the province of Asia today? What country is Macedonia in today?
2. What principle about God’s guidance is illustrated in 16:7-10? Has that principle ever been demonstrated in your life?
3. Acts 13:5, 14; 14:1; 17:2, 10 reveal Paul’s usual missionary strategy. Why do you think he went to the riverside in Philippi? 16:13.
4. Describe Lydia from 16:14-16. How is her conversion described? What the immediate evidence of her faith? What did her home become?
5. The other events in Paul’ visit to Philippi had to have had a direct effect on Lydia. Try to imagine what decisions she had to make in light of these events concerning her family, friends and business.
6. 16:16-18. What power gave the slave girl her ability? How was she exploited? Was her message about Paul correct? Then why was he troubled? What does this tell us about people who predict the future even if some of it comes true?
7. 16:19-24. What were the results of Paul’s compassionate action?
8. 16:25-28. What was Paul and Silas’ response to this discouraging turn of events? Since God had led them there, why had this happened? Have you ever experienced trials even though you knew you were in the center of God’s will? What was your reaction?
9. 16:31-34. What was the immediate result of their imprisonment? How did the jailer evidence his faith? What similarity is there to Lydia?
10. 16:37-39. Why do you think Paul exercised his privileges as a Roman citizen now? Where was the last place they met in Philippi? In view of their notoriety what does this tell us about Lydia?
11. Acts 5:42; 12:12-17; Rom. 16:5, 13. How critical was hospitality in those days? Have you used your home to reach children or your neighbors for Christ? Do you entertain missionaries?
12. Paul wrote the letter to the Philippians about 10 years later. Compare the character of the church to its first convert, Lydia. Phil. 1:4, 5, 7; 2:25; 4:15-19; 2 Cor. 8:1-5.
13. What insight does this give us into the influence of women in the early church? See also Phil. 4:2-3; Rom. 16: 1-4, 6-7, 12-15. What do you think their specific contributions were? Are they still needed today? CHRIST IS COMING !
BIBLE TEACHING ABOUT HIS RETURN
It was once fashionable in religious circles to say that 1 Jesus Christ would never return to the earth. There are still plenty of professing Christians who believe that. But there are now many others who have come to believe that the Second Coming is a very important event.
Christadelphians have always taught that the Return of Jesus Christ to the earth is vital to the fulfilment of the purpose of God. This booklet reviews Bible teaching about the Second Coming, both the events that will lead up to that miracle and the reason for the Lord's Return.
New Testament Teaching
Someone has counted the New Testament references to this great event, and they number 318 occurrences! If you reflect that the number of times the word for Christian love occurs is only 115, you will begin to see the importance of this topic. Nor is it simply the case that only one or two New Testament writers refer to the matter in their writings. Treatment of the subject is widely spread.
Jesus spoke often about the Kingdom of God. and his Second Coming. His parables, for example, were told to those who thought the Kingdom of God was to appear immediately. He was like a nobleman who had to go "into a far country to receive for himself a Kingdom and to return" ( Luke 19:12 ). More than once he spoke of the Coming of the Son of Man (e.g. Matthew 24:27,30,37, 39,48; 25:27; 26:64 ). And when he assured his disciples of his continuing spiritual, but invisible, presence "even , unto the end of ihe world" ( Matthew 28:20 ), he inferred that then he would be visibly present with them for ever.
The testimony of the Apostles was equally plain. They had been clearly taught by the Risen Lord who, during the forty days before his ascension into heaven, instructed them about the Kingdom of God, the restored kingdom of Israel ( Acts 1:3,6 ). It was the opening theme of his post resurrection appearances that all the Old Testament promises were coming to their fulfilment in him ( Luke 24:27 ). At the time of his ascension, as he was being taken up from the Mount of Olives into the clouds, God sent His angels to explain.
"Ye men of Galilee", they said to the watching apostles, "Why stand ye gazing up into heaven? This same Jesus, which is taken up from you into heaven, shall so come in like manner as ye have seen him go info hesven" ( Acts 1 :11 )
It is not therefore surprising that when the Apostles began to teach in the streets of Jerusalem, they said that their Lord Jesus Christ was to return to the earth as King. Peter gave the lead when he boldly announced that the grave could not keep Jesus imprisoned. He referred his hearers to a statement in Psalm 110:1 , used also by his Lord, to show that he had gone to heaven only until his enemies have been subdued ( 2:34,35 ). Note the authoritative use of the Old Testament.
But also note a vital point. Bible teaching is never given just for the sake of informing us what happens next. It always has a deeper intention, for we are meant to use the knowledge it confers to prepare ourselves for those coming events:
"Therefore let all the house of Israel know assuredly that God hath made that same Jesus, whom ye have crucified, both Lord and Christ . . . Repent and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins" ( Acts 2:36,38 )
It should follow that our consideration of Bible truth concerning the Return of the Lord should also cause us to search our hearts.
Other New Testament Writings
But what of the writings of other New Testament authors? Let us look at just one of the New Testament letters, the First written by Paul to the Thessalonians. Notice how he centres his entire message on the truth of the personal return to the earth of the Lord:
"wait for his Son from heaven . . . which delivereth us from the wrath to come" ( 1 :10 );
"what is our hope or joy? . . . Are not ye in the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ at his coming?" ( 2:19 );
"he may stablish your hearts unblameable . . . at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ with all his saints" ( 3:13 );
"the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout" ( 4:16 );
"the day of the Lord so cometh as a thief in the night" ( 5:2 );
"I pray God your whole spirit and soul and body be preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ" ( 5:23 ).
You could try extending this investigation, if you wish. The emphasis on the Lord's Coming continues in all the New Testament letters, but it is always related to practical Christian living. Because the Lord is coming again there were matters in their lives that required attention! And it is so for us.
Old Testament Teaching
The same person who counted 318 references in the New Testament extended the search to the Old Testament, and discovered 1527 such references to an event in God's purpose which can be no other than the Coming of Christ as King. Let it be clear that the exact number is unimportant; there is always room for some difference of opinion about the occasional passage. But it is perhaps startling to some readers to consider that there could be five times as many references to the Second Coming in a part of the Bible which has suffered widely from neglect over the years.
The fact of the matter is this: the New Testament can only be understood once the Old Testament has also been studied. The two Testaments belong together as interdependent parts of God's revealed truth. What the Old Testament foretells the New Testament fulfils, in part. But a very Iarge amount of Old Testament prophecy remains unfulfilled.
Consider these promises of a King who will reign over God's Kingdom on earth, and ask yourself whether they have ever been fulfilled:
GENESIS : "Thy seed (a descendant of Abraham) shall possess the gate of his enemies; and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed" ( 22:17,18; see Acts 3:25; Galatians 3:16 ).
2 SAMUEL: "And when thy days (David) be fulfilled, and thou shalt sleep with thy fathers, I will set up thy seed •descendant) after thee, which shall proceed out of thy bowels, and I will establish his kingdom. He shall build a house (a Temple) for my name, and I will stablish the throne of his kingdom for ever" ( 7:12, 13 ).
PSALMS: "The Lord hath said unto me, Thou art my Son; this day have I begotten thee. Ask of me, and I shall give thee the heathen for thine inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth for thy possession" ( 2:7,8; see Acts 4:25,26 );
"He (the promised king) . . . shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth" ( 72:6-8 ).
ISAIAH: "It shall come to pass in the last days, that the mountain of the Lord's house (His Temple) shall be established in the top of the mountains (at Jerusalem) . . . and all nations shall flow unto it . . . for out of Zion shall go forth the Iaw, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem. And he shall judge among the nations" ( 2:2-4 );
"Of the increase of his government and peace there shall be no end, upon the throne of David and upon his kingdom, to order it and to establish it with judgment and with justice from henceforth even for ever" ( 9:7 );
JEREMIAH: "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will raise unto David a righteous Branch (descendant), and a King shall reign and prosper, and shall execute judgment and justice in the earth. In his days Judah shall be saved, and Israel shall dwelt safely: and this is the name whereby he shall be called, THE LORD OUR RIGHTEOUSNESS" ( 23:5,6 ).
The Kingdom of God
Many times God has promised that He will rule the earth. What man has failed time and again to achieve, God will establish. The King will be a descendant of both Abraham and David (see Matthew 1:1 ). He will rule from Jerusalem, on David's throne (see Luke 1:31-33 ). His Kingdom will be one of justice and righteousness; it will involve Divine education, Temple worship, and the exercise of Kingly power to establish peace on earth (see Revelation 11:15-18 ).
The Kingdom of God was once before established on earth. King David and his descendants reigned upon the throne of the Kingdom of the Lord ( 1 Chronicles 28:5 ). There was nothing special about the throne itself. The Divine appointment was what mattered and when king after king had neglected God's law, He brought that arrangement to an end. But even when the prophet Ezekiel announced the end of the Kingdom to King Zedekiah (in 21:25-27 ), he promised that God would restore the Kingdom on earth when he should "come whose right it is".
The Second Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ to the earth has therefore to be understood against that powerful Old Testament background. When Jesus began his public ministry by announcing that the Kingdom of God was at hand ( Mark 1:15 ), he was saying to those who knew the Old Testament promises that he was the promised King. But Jesus had first come to achieve personal righteousness, and to make it possible for others to become right with God.
It is now possible for us to find peace with God through the forgiveness of our sins, by association with the saving work of the Lord Jesus. First we have to understand the Gospel, including Bible teaching about the work and person of the Lord Jesus, and the Kingdom over which he is now the King. Then we have to be baptized as believing adults into his saving Name (see Acts 8:12 ).
Behold Your King!
But what is the Second Coming of the Lord going to be Iike? For example, would it be possible to miss it altogether and not even be aware that it had occurred? Will it be visible or invisible? Will Jesus be there in person or merely a spiritual presence? And will he come to the earth or only towards the earth?
Jesus Christ rose bodily from the grave. He was not an invisible spirit creature but One who could be seen, handled and held ( 1John 1:1 ; Luke 24:39,40 ). His body was marked by the evidence of his suffering on the cross. Yet he was no longer subject to the limitations of human existence. He could come and go despite locked doors, and on Mount Olivet he ascended bodily to heaven, defying the law of gravity. The disciples had seen him go; he would return visibly. As the angel later said: "Behold, he cometh with clouds; and every eye shall see him" ( Revelation 1 :7 ). Or as Zechariah the Old Testament prophet had predicted, long before the crucifixion, "They shall look upon me whom they have pierced and they shall mourn for him" ( 12: 10 ).
So it will not do to say that only those who look with faith will see the Lord. Some will look, see, and mourn ( Revelation 1 :7 ). Nor will it do to say that Jesus will come invisibly, for the Lord himself warned:
"Then if any man shall say unto you, Lo, here is Christ, or there; believe it not. For there shall arise false Christs and false prophets . . . ' ( Matthew 24:23, 24 ).
Nor will it do to argue that the Bible talks of the presence of the Lord, meaning that it will be an invisible one. The New Testament also talks about the revelation of the Lord, using a word that means uncovering or manifesting. In fact, the presence (Greek: parousia) of the Lord turns out to be an especially suitable term. One of the most authoritative Greek Lexicons available says of the word:
"It became the official term for a visit of a person of high rank, especially of kings and emperors visiting a province"
(Arndt and Gingrich).
It is such a visit by a King that the Scriptures foretell. The crowds who welcomed King Jesus into Jerusalem, when he sat astride a donkey and they threw coats and palm branches before him, shouted out greetings that referred right back to the Promises of God: "Blessed be the kingdom of our father David that cometh in the name of the Lord" ( Mark 11 :10 ). Matthew comments that the rejoicing was a foretaste of what had been forecast by Zechariah the prophet, when he wrote " Behold, thy King cometh unto thee ".
Now if the initial royal visit was attended by such joy and rejoicing, consider what the next one will be like! The prophet ha'd declared:
"'Rejoice greatly, 0 daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold thy king cometh unto thee: he is just, and having salvation . . . and he shall speak peace unto the heathen; and his dominion shall be from sea even to sea, and from the river even to the ends of the earth" ( Zechariah 9:9,10 )
Dual Fulfilment
This scripture illustrates a widely used feature of Bible prophecy: its joint short and long-term character. Jerusalem rejoiced at the Kingly coming of Jesus-"lowly and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass" - just as the prophet had said. But their joy was short-lived; for he did not then go on to establish worldwide peace, or commence to rule from Jerusalem over a Kingdom that was to last for ever. Jesus completed enough of the prophecy at that time to demonstrate that he was the Coming One, and to give us confidence that he will return to complete the promised transformation of the earth. Zechariah compressed the two comings in such a way that there appeared to be no interval between them. This has led some people to argue that the Kingdom will never come, because, they say, even Jesus expected it in the First Century, or at most shortly afterwards: It has thus been dismissed by some as an early Christian hope, which has now been superseded by a superior understanding. But when all the Scriptures are studied carefully, it becomes clear that the Coming of Jesus was not to occur immediately after his ascension to heaven.
The Day and the Hour
Any attempt to show that Jesus was mistaken about the time of his Coming is doomed to failure. He clearly stated, more than once, that he did not know:
"Of that day and hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of heaven, but my Father only" ( Matthew 24:36 ).
As he later said, this was something that the Father had reserved within His own authority ( Acts 1:7 ). But Jesus did know that some long time would elapse before his Second Coming. He told parables to indicate that his coming would not "immediately appear" ( Luke 19: 11 ), that it would be "after a long time" ( Matthew 25:19 ), and that there might be some delay for those who were waiting ( 25:3 ). Like their Lord, his followers were to appreciate that they could "not know what hour" he would come.
The apostles also acknowledged that they could not know the precise time of the great event for which they waited. Peter warned about people who would scoff, as so many have, at the "promise of his coming" ( 2 Peter 3:4 ). Indeed he poured scorn on their faithlessness, what he called "wilful ignorance"- people believing what they wanted to believe, regardless of the evidence. And Paul was in no doubt either, for he went on record as saying:
"But of the times and the seasons, brethren, ye have no need that I write unto you. For yourselves know perfectly that the day of the Lord so cometh . . . " ( 1Thessalonians 5:1,2 ).
Can you complete that quotation? It holds the key to two vital matters concerning the early return of the King. Notice first what the verse above says. There would be general indications available-what Paul calls "times and seasons"-which would help keep the believers prepared. And the verse continues:
" the day of the Lord so cometh as a thief in the night."
When it happens the Lord's Coming will be swift, sudden and unexpected. No-one expects thieves to strike. But they often succeed because people overlook the dangers. It is also the case that speed is vital to a successful robbery, which is why the figure is used by Jesus ( Matthew 24:43 ), Paul ( 1Thessalonians 5:2 ), and Peter ( 2Peter 3:10 ), to emphasise the vital point. We must be on our guard, watchful, prepared, vigilant. The Lord could come at any timel He will come when we least expect him!
The Times and Seasons
That is why when Jesus explained what was to happen before his Return, he very carefully emphasised the need for watchfulness. Sitting with his disciples one day on the Mount of Olives, from where he would later ascend to heavan, he gave them some general indications of what was to happen prior to his "coming and the end of the world" ( Matthew 24:3 ). This prophecy presents a fascinating challenge, for it combines a short-term prediction about the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple, with a long-term forecast of world events.
A list of the predicted events in the three Gospel accounts (Matthew 24, Mark 13 and Luke 21), which does not claim to be a structured sequence of prophetic events, shows the foltowing:
1. The rise of false Christianity and false Christs.
2. The persecution of true Christians.
3. Wars and rumours of wars, nation against nation.
4. Earthquakes, famines and pestilences.
5. Jerusalem surrounded by armies.
6. The Jewish nation dispersed.
7. Jerusalem in non-Jewish occupation.
8. Tribulation and distress.
9. Signs in the sun, moon and stars.
10. The powers of heaven shaken.
Notice how believers are warned about the rise and growth of false Christianity. It is the Lord's first concern. His words were fulfilled by the rapid development of wrong teaching in New Testament times (e.g. Acts 20:29 ), and are being fulfilled again at the close of this age. Elsewhere the message is that the true believers will comprise a very small remnant, compared with those who hold a distorted form of Christianity.
Antichrist
The apostles also warn about this development. Paul was emphatic that there would be manifestations of false Christianity, for he prophesied that the Day of the Lord:
"shall not come, except there come a falling away first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition; who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped" ( 2 Thessalonians 2:3,4 )
The apostle Paul describes the man of sin in language that refers back to the prophet Daniel, who accurately foretold the rise and fall of four empires that exercised power in the Middle East. He traced the development from them to a false religious system, involving the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy, that is opposed to Christ and his true followers. This is counterfeit Christianity, and the apostle Paul describes it as "the mystery of iniquity" which was already at work, and "a strong delusion".
The other thread of teaching in the Lord's catalogue of future events concerned trouble. There were to be wars and rumours of wars, both within and between nations; there would be rlatural disasters and widespread hardship, earthquakes, famines and epidemics; terrors and fearful sights would be in the heavens, causing much fear and distress. People would not know which way to turn for fear of what was about to happen on earth.
To some extent these problems are as old as man. The tendency to war against one another is evident even in the first book of the Bible, and famine features there too. But even within Bible history the atrocities of which man is capable become increasingly ugly, and since then even more widespread horrors have been seen. The powers now available to mankind are enough to make any sane person fear for the future. More than ever before, these words of Jesus are coming true:
"There shall be . . . upon the earth distress of nations, with perplexity; the sea and the waves roaring; men's hearts failing them for fear, and for looking after those things which are coming on the earth: for the powers of heaven shall be shaken. And then shall they see the Son of man coming in a cloud with power and great glory" ( Luke 21:25-27 ).
Tribulation
The reference to the sea and waves roaring, like others to signs in the sun, moon and stars, may be either symbolic or literal or some combination of both. The prophet Isaiah, for example, wrote about the wicked being "like the troubled sea, when it cannot rest, whose waters cast up mire and dirt" ( 57:20 ). Jesus may have been drawing upon such imagery to describe a world that was full of trouble because it was full of wickedness. He may also have been teaching us to look out for some upheaval of the physical order, like tidal waves, which would also be an indication of the end of the age. Certainly there have been many earthquakes and natural disasters over the past few years, all over the world. The apostle Paul described the whole world order as groaning and travailing in pain ( Romans 8:22 ), like a woman waiting to be delivered of a child. It is thus evident that our present troubles are the birthpangs of a new and better world, soon to begin.
In both Testaments we are told that the tribulation that will come at the end of human government is the final herald of the Second Coming. It will be:
"a time of trouble such as never was" ( Daniel 12:1 );
"the time of Jacob's (lsrael's) trouble" ( Jeremiah 30:7 );
"great tribulation" ( Matthew 24:21 ).
Will the believers waiting for their Lord have to suffer this trouble, or will they be spared? The likelihood is that present-day believers will live through this time of trouble, indeed that they have already begun to do so. Jesus promised that for the elect's sake that time would be shortened ( Mark 13:20 ). But those who finally stand approved before the Judge are those "which came out of the grest tribulation, and they washed their robes, and made them white in the blood of the Lamb" ( Revelation 7:14 ).
As that trouble increases, and God pours out His wrath upon the earth, there are indications that true believers will be sheltered from that outpouring. Isaiah describes the great shake-up of human society when God intervenes:
"Come, my people, enter into thy chambers . . . hide thyself as it were for a little moment, until the indignation be overpast. For, behold, the Lord cometh out of his place to punish the inhabitants of the earth for their iniquity" ( 24:18-23, 26:20,21 ).
We must therefore consider carefully what Jesus said:
"When these things (the signs of which he spoke) begin to come to pass, then look up and lift up your heads, for your redemption draweth nigh" ( Luke 21 :28 ).
We should not wait until total disaster has struck, and there is no escape route left. It is better to learn the lesson now, that this is the time immediately before the Second Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ.
The Nation of Sign
There is one great sign which removes all doubt concerning his imminent return. The nation of Israel is back occupying the land promised by God. The history of the Jewish nation has been a guide throughout the ages to the outworking of God's purposes. They were called as a special people, because of the great promises that had been made to their Fathers. They were given the right to occupy the land we now know as Israel, conditional upon their faithful obedience to God. They were the people whose kings occupied the throne of God's Kingdom on earth.
They forfeited these rights when, after centuries of indifference, they not only refused to accept the Lord Jesus as their Messiah, but were involved, with the Romans, in effecting his death by crucifixion. Because of that rejection, Jerusalem was overthrown. Throughout the intervening centuries Jews have wandered the earth as a stateless people, hated and persecuted almost everywhere they went, just as Scripture said they would be.
But Scripture also forecast a better future for this nation of sign, not because they would change their behaviour and live to deserve better treatment, but because God would take pity on their plight and act to redeem them. He would remember the promises made of old to the Fathers and act to vindicate His great name. At the time of the end they would be brought back from the nations and once more be settled in their own land-the land of promise! So the prophets said:
ISAIAH : "The remnant shall return . . . the ransomed of the Lord shall return, and come to Zion" ( 10:21; 35:10 ).
JEREMIAH: "He that scattered Israel will gather him" ( 31:10 ).
EZEKIEL: "I will even gather you from the people, and assemble you out of the countries . . . then shall they dwell in their land , . . yea, they shall dwell with confidence" ( 11:17; 28:25, 26 ).
ZECHARIAH: "I will bring them, and they shall dwell in the midst of Jerusalem" ( 8:8 ).
And so it came to pass. After nearly two thousand years of dispersion and down-treading, in 1948 the State of Israel was born by the decree of the United Nations, and in 1967 the whole of Jerusalem was repossessed by Jews. It had taken all that time for the words of Jesus to be fulfilled:
"They shall fall by the edge of the sword and shall be led away captive into all nations: and Jerusalem shall be trodden down of the Gentiles, until the times of the Gentiles be fulfilled" ( Luke 21 :24 ).
Everything now indicates that the Times of the Gentiles are rapidly drawing to a close and the Time of the Kingdom of God is once more at hand. The bringing together of troublous times and the return of the Jews to the Land removes any doubt. Shortly King Jesus will return to Jerusalem as World Ruler, to reign over Israel and over all nations. Of all the available Signs of the Times given by Jesus and the prophets, the establishment of Israel-the Nation of Sign-is the clearest witness that the End is now at hand.
The "Rapture"
What then awaits the faithful follower of Jesus? Can he expect to go to heaven with the Lord at his Return? Hardly, for the Lord is coming to reign on earth, from Jerusalem. An elaborate scheme has been devised by some Bible readers which requires not one Coming but two. According to this, Christ's Coming would be first for the Church only and would be a secret "rapture". He would come again with the Church, for the world, and this would be visible and public. In some versions of this theory the interval between the two comings is very small; in others as much as seven years is thought to separate the two events.
There is very little Scripture that can be used to attempt to support these theories, for whilst there are some indications that a separation will occur between companions when Jesus comes ( Luke 17:34-36 ), the main teaching about the circumstances of the Return is that given in Paul's First Letter to the Thessalonians:
"The Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trump of God: and the dead in Christ shall rise first: then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air: and so shall we ever be with the Lord" ( 4:16,17 ) .
The phrase caught up is that from which the whole idea of a rapture has evolved; and the links with a supposed seven year period of tribulation have been achieved by the unsatisfactory interpretation of other Scriptures, especially from the Revelation. Clearly there is to be a catching away of true believers, both of the living and the resurrected dead, "to meet the Lord in the air". They are to form a welcoming party who, with the angels who attend his coming, will make up his entourage. But they go to meet him, not he them. And their destination is made clear in the Scriptures already considered: the Lord and his followers are bound for Jerusalem ( Zechariah 14:4 ), "the city of the great king" ( Matthew 5:35 ).
The Lord will come!
In these dying moments of human government the powers of heaven will be shaken as men's hearts fail them for fear. The nations will be engaged in a battle around Jerusalem. Then the Lord will come! Unexpectedly, suddenly, in great power and glory bringing salvation for those who have faithfully waited and prepared for this central event in their lives; but bringing judgement upon all those who have wilfully ignored the faithful promises and gracious invitation of God:
"The Lord Jesus shall be revealed from heaven with his mighty angels, in flaming fire taking vengeance on them that know not God, and that obey not the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ: who shall be punished with everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and from the glory of his power: when he shall come to be glorified in his saints, and to be admired in all them that believe" ( 2Thessalonians 1:9,10 ).
It is vital therefore that we believe what the Bible so clearly promises. We cannot simply "wait and see", because Jesus is coming to save those who already believe, not to give reasons for faith to those who have had clear evidence, but no inclination for the things of God.
When the Lord spoke to his followers about his eventual return to earth, he focused their attention more on the consequences of his Coming than on the sequence of events itself. To this day we cannot know for sure when Jesus will come. But we know perfectly clearly that when he comes he will call us to account, and ask us how we spent our lives on the eve of his return:
"Take heed . . . be not led astray . . . be not troubled . . take heed to yourselves . . . preach the gospel . . . be not anxious . . . endure to the end .. flee ... pray ... believe not false prophets . . . take heed . . . look up and lift up your heads . . . take heed to yourselves . . . watch . . . BE READY" ( Matthew 24 ; Mark 13 ; Luke 21 ).
The apostles make the very same points as they reflect on the nearness of the Lord's Return.
"What manner of persons ought ye to be in all holy conversation and godliness . . . be diligent that ye may be found of him in peace, without spot, and blameless" ( 2Peter 3:11-14 ).
"Denying ungodliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and godly, in this present world; looking for that blessed hope, and the glorious appearing of the great God and our Saviour Jesus Christ" ( Titus 2:12,13 ).
"When he shall appear, we shall be like him; for we shall see him as he is. And every man who has this hope in him purifieth himself, even as he is pure" ( 1 John 3:2,3 ).
Take Heed to Yourselves
The Bible is our guidebook to the future, just as it is our handbook for the present. It alone will show us what God wants us to do. From it we can learn God's purpose and promises. The first thing is to understand and believe those things that are true. We shall then come to appreciate the need for obedience to God, starting with baptism. And thus we shall be doing what Jesus commanded.
The coming Kingdom of God on earth will transform human experience. We need to learn to live now in harmony with our Creator. The Lord is at hand! It is now an urgent matter for us all to examine our lives, so that we are properly prepared for the Coming of the King. Paul waited in Athens. } Now while Paul waited for them at Athens, his spirit was {f} stirred in him, when he saw the city wholly given to {g} idolatry.
(9) In comparing the wisdom of God with man's wisdom, men scoff and mock at that which they do not understand: and God uses the curiosity of fools to gather together his elect.
(f) He could not forbear.
(g) Slavishly given to idolatry: Pausanias writes that there were more idols in Athens than in all Greece; yea they had altars dedicated to Shame, and Fame, and Lust, whom they made goddesses.
People's New Testament
17:16 While Paul waited. At first he seems to have intended to await the arrival of Timothy and Silas before he opened his work, but his spirit was too much stirred.
Wholly given to idolatry. Full of idols in the Revised Version. This is confirmed by the Greek writers. The Greek historian Pausanias says that there were more idols in Athens than in all the rest of Greece combined. Many other writers bear the same testimony. Paul would see them wherever he turned his eyes.
Wesley's Notes
17:16 While Paul was waiting for the - Having no design, as it seems, to preach at Athens, but his zeal for God drew him into it unawares, without staying till his companions came.
King James Translators' Notes
wholly...: or, full of idols
Scofield Reference Notes
Margin stirred
provoked within him as he beheld the city full of idols.
Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary
Ac 17:16-34. Paul at Athens.
16, 17. wholly given to idolatry-"covered with idols"; meaning the city, not the inhabitants. Petronius, a contemporary writer at Nero's court, says satirically that it was easier to find a god at Athens than a man. This "stirred the spirit" of the apostle. "The first impression which the masterpieces of man's taste for art left on the mind of St. Paul was a revolting one, since all this majesty and beauty had placed itself between man and his Creator, and bound him the faster to his gods, who were not God. Upon the first contact, therefore, which the Spirit of Christ came into with the sublimest creations of human art, the judgment of the Holy Ghost-through which they have all to pass-is set up as "the strait gate," and this must remain the correct standard for ever" [Baumgarten].
Matthew Henry's Concise Commentary
17:16-21 Athens was then famed for polite learning, philosophy, and the fine arts; but none are more childish and superstitious, more impious, or more credulous, than some persons, deemed eminent for learning and ability. It was wholly given to idolatry. The zealous advocate for the cause of Christ will be ready to plead for it in all companies, as occasion offers. Most of these learned men took no notice of Paul; but some, whose principles were the most directly contrary to Christianity, made remarks upon him. The apostle ever dwelt upon two points, which are indeed the principal doctrines of Christianity, Christ and a future state; Christ our way, and heaven our end. They looked on this as very different from the knowledge for many ages taught and professed at Athens; they desire to know more of it, but only because it was new and strange. They led him to the place where judges sat who inquired into such matters. They asked about Paul's doctrine, not because it was good, but because it was new. Great talkers are always busy-bodies. They spend their time in nothing else, and a very uncomfortable account they have to give of their time who thus spend it. Time is precious, and we are concerned to employ it well, because eternity depends upon it, but much is wasted in unprofitable conversation.
Matthew Henry's Whole Bible Commentary
Verses 16-21
A scholar that has acquaintance, and is in love, with the learning of the ancients, would think he should be very happy if he were where Paul now was, at Athens, in the midst of the various sects of philosophers, and would have a great many curious questions to ask them, for the explication of the remains we have of the Athenian learning; but Paul, though bred a scholar, and an ingenious active man, does not make this any of his business at Athens. He has other work to mind: it is not the improving of himself in their philosophy that he aims at, he has learned to call it a vain thing, and is above it (Col. 2:8); his business is, in God's name, to correct their disorders in religion, and to turn them from the service of idols, and of Satan in them, to the service of the true and living God in Christ.
I. Here is the impression which the abominable ignorance and superstition of the Athenians made upon Paul's spirit, v. 16. Observe, 1. The account here given of that city: it was wholly given to idolatry. This agrees with the account which the heathen writers give of it, that there were more idols in Athens than there were in all Greece besides put together, and that they had twice as many sacred feasts as others had. Whatever strange gods were recommended to them, they admitted them, and allowed them a temple and an altar, so that they had almost as many gods as men-facilius possis deum quam hominem invenire. And this city, after the empire became Christian, continued incurably addicted to idolatry, and all the pious edicts of the Christian emperors could not root it out, till, by the irruption of the Goths, that city was in so particular a manner laid waste that there are now scarcely any remains of it. It is observable that there, where human learning most flourished, idolatry most abounded, and the most absurd and ridiculous idolatry, which confirms that of the apostle, that when they professed themselves to be wise they became fools (Rom. 1:22), and, in the business of religion, were of all other the most vain in their imaginations. The world by wisdom knew not God, 1 Co. 1:21. They might have reasoned against polytheism and idolatry; but, it seems, the greatest pretenders to reason were the greatest slaves to idols: so necessary was it to the re-establishing even of natural religion that there should be a divine revelation, and that centering in Christ. 2. The disturbance which the sight of this gave to Paul. Paul was not willing to appear publicly till Silas and Timothy came to him, that out of the mouth of two or three witnesses the word might be established; but in the mean time his spirit was stirred within him. He was filled with concern for the glory of God, which he saw given to idols, and with compassion to the souls of men, which he saw thus enslaved to Satan, and led captive by him at his will. He beheld these transgressors, and was grieved; and horror took hold of him. He had a holy indignation at the heathen priests, that led the people such an endless trace of idolatry, and at their philosophers, that knew better, and yet never said a word against it, but themselves went down the stream.
II. The testimony that he bore against their idolatry, and his endeavours to bring them to the knowledge of the truth. He did not, as Witsius observes, in the heat of his zeal break into the temples, pull down their images, demolish their altars, or fly in the face of their priests; nor did he run about the streets crying, "You are all the bond-slaves of the devil," though it was too true; but he observed decorum, and kept himself within due bounds, doing that only which became a prudent man. 1. He went to the synagogue of the Jews, who, though enemies to Christianity, were free from idolatry, and joined with them in that among them which was good, and took the opportunity given him there of disputing for Christ, v. 17. He discoursed with the Jews, reasoned fairly with them, and put it to them what reason they could give why, since they expected the Messiah, they would not receive Jesus. There he met with the devout persons that had forsaken the idol temples, but rested in the Jews' synagogue, and he talked with these to lead them on to the Christian church, to which the Jews' synagogue was but as a porch. 2. He entered into conversation with all that came in his way about matters of religion: In the market-en teµ agora, in the exchange, or place of commerce, he disputed daily, as he had occasion, with those that met with him, or that he happened to fall into company with, that were heathen, and never came to the Jews' synagogue. The zealous advocates for the cause of Christ will be ready to plead it in all companies, as occasion offers. The ministers of Christ must not think it enough to speak a good word for Christ once a week, but should be daily speaking honourably of him to such as meet with them.
III. The enquiries which some of the philosophers made concerning Paul's doctrine. Observe,
1. Who they were that encountered him, that entered into discourse with him, and opposed him: He disputed with all that met him, in the places of concourse, or rather of discourse. Most took no notice of him, slighted him, and never minded a word he said; but there were some of the philosophers that thought him worth making remarks upon, an they were those whose principles were most directly contrary to Christianity. (1.) The Epicureans, who thought God altogether such a one as themselves, an idle inactive being, that minded nothing, nor put any difference between good and evil. They would not own, either that God made the world or that he governs it; nor that man needs to make any conscience of what he says or does, having no punishment to fear nor rewards to hope for, all which loose atheistical notions Christianity is levelled against. The Epicureans indulged themselves in all the pleasures of sense, and placed their happiness in them, in what Christ has taught us in the first place to deny ourselves. (2.) The Stoics, who thought themselves altogether as good as God, and indulged themselves as much in the pride of life as the Epicureans did in the lusts of the flesh and of the eye; they made their virtuous man to be no way inferior to God himself, nay to be superior. Esse aliquid quo sapiens antecedat Deum-There is that in which a wise man excels God, so Seneca: to which Christianity is directly opposite, as it teaches us to deny ourselves and abase ourselves, and to come off from all confidence in ourselves, that Christ may be all in all.
2. What their different sentiments were of him; such there were as there were of Christ, v. 18. (1.) Some called him a babbler, and thought he spoke, without any design, whatever came uppermost, as men of crazed imaginations do: What will this babbler say? ho spermologos houtos-this scatterer of words, that goes about, throwing here one idle word or story and there another, without any intendment or signification; or, this picker up of seeds. Some of the critics tell us that the term is used for a little sort of bird, that is worth nothing at all, either for the spit or for the cage, that picks up the seeds that lie uncovered, either in the field or by the way-side, and hops here and there for that purpose-Avicula parva quae semina in triviis dispersa colligere solet; such a pitiful contemptible animal they took Paul to be, or supposed he went from place to place venting his notions to get money, a penny here and another there, as that bird picks up here and there a grain. They looked upon him as an idle fellow, and regarded him, as we say, no more than a ballad-singer. (2.) Others called him a setter forth of strange gods, and thought he spoke with design to make himself considerable by that means. And, if he had strange gods to set forth, he could not bring them to a better market than to Athens. He did not, as many did, directly set forth new gods, nor avowedly; but they thought he seemed to do so, because he preached unto then Jesus, and the resurrection. From his first coming among them he ever and anon harped upon these two strings, which are indeed the principal doctrines of Christianity-Christ and a future state-Christ our way, and heaven our end; and, though he did not call these gods, yet they thought he meant to make them so. Ton Ieµsoun kai teµn anastasin, "Jesus they took for a new god, and anastasis, the resurrection, for a new goddess." Thus they lost the benefit of the Christian doctrine by dressing it up in a pagan dialect, as if believing in Jesus, and looking for the resurrection, were the worshipping of new demons.
3. The proposal they made to give him a free, full, fair, and public hearing, v. 19, 20. They had heard some broken pieces of his doctrine, and are willing to have a more perfect knowledge of it. (1.) They look upon it as strange and surprising, and very different from the philosophy that had for many ages been taught and professed at Athens. "It is a new doctrine, which we do not understand the drift and design of. Thou bringest certain strange things to our ears, which we never heard of before, and know not what to make of now." By this it should seem that, among all the learned books they had, they either had not, or heeded not, the books of Moses and the prophets, else the doctrine of Christ would not have been so perfectly new and strange to them. There was but one book in the world that was of divine inspiration, and that was the only book they were strangers to, which, if they would have given a due regard to it, would, in its very first page, have determined that great controversy among them about the origin of the universe. (2.) They desired to know more of it, only because it was new and strange: "May we know what this new doctrine is? Or, is it (like the mysteries of the gods) to be kept as a profound secret? If it may be, we would gladly know, and desire thee to tell us, what these things mean, that we may be able to pass a judgment upon them." This was a fair proposal; it was fit they should know what this doctrine was before they embraced it; and they were so fair as not to condemn it till they had had some account of it. (3.) The place they brought him to, in order to this public declaration of his doctrine; it was to Areopagus, the same word that is translated (v. 22) Mars' Hill; it was the town-house, or guildhall of their city, where the magistrates met upon public business, and the courts of justice were kept; and it was as the theatre in the university, or the schools, where learned men met to communicate their notions. The court of justice which sat here was famous for its equity, which drew appeals to it from all parts; if any denied a God, he was liable to the censure of this court. Diagoras was by them put to death, as a contemner of the gods; nor might any new God be admitted without their approbation. Hither they brought Paul to be tried, not as a criminal but as a candidate.
4. The general character of the people of that city given upon this occasion (v. 21): All the Athenians, that is natives of the place, and strangers who sojourned there for their improvement, spent their time in nothing else but either to tell or to hear some new thing, which comes in as the reason why they were inquisitive concerning Paul's doctrine, not because it was good, but because it was new. It is a very sorry character which is here given of these people, yet many transcribe it. (1.) They were all for conversation. St. Paul exhorts his pupil to give attendance to reading and meditation (1 Tim. 4:13, 15), but these people despised those old-fashioned ways of getting knowledge, and preferred that of telling and hearing. It is true that good company is of great use to a man, and will polish one that has laid a good foundation in study; but that knowledge will be very flashy and superficial which is got by conversation only. (2.) They affected novelty; they were for telling and hearing some new thing. They were for new schemes and new notions in philosophy, new forms and plans of government in politics, and, in religion, for new gods that came newly up (Deu. 32:17), new demons, new-fashioned images and altars (2 Ki. 16:10); they were given to change. Demosthenes, an orator of their own, had charged this upon them long before, in one of his Philippics, that their common question in the markets, or wherever they met, was ei ti le etai neoµteron-whether there was any news. (3.) They meddled in other people's business, and were inquisitive concerning that, and never minded their own. Tattlers are always busy bodies, 1 Tim. 5:13. (4.) They spent their time in nothing else, and a very uncomfortable account those must needs have to make of their time who thus spend it. Time is precious, and we are concerned to be good husbands of it, because eternity depends upon it, and it is hastening apace into eternity, but abundance of it is wasted in unprofitable converse. To tell or hear the new occurrences of providence concerning the public in our own or other nations, and concerning our neighbours and friends, is of good use now and then; but to set up for newsmongers, and to spend our time in nothing else, is to lose that which is very precious for the gain of that which is worth little. Justinian I was born in a small village called Tauresina (Taor) in Illyricum (near Skopje), in the Balkan peninsula, probably on May 11, 483 to Vigilantia, the sister of the highly esteemed General Justin, who rose from the ranks of the army to become emperor. His uncle Justin adopted him and ensured the boy's education. Justinian completed the usual course of education, occupying himself with jurisprudence and philosophy. His military career featured rapid advancement, and a great future opened up for him when, in 518, Justin became emperor. Consul in 521, later in command of the army of the east, he functioned as a virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor on April 1, 527.
Four months later Justinian became the sole sovereign. His administration had world-wide impact, constituting a distinct epoch in the history of the Byzantine Empire and the Orthodox Church. He was a man of unusual capacity for work, temperate, affable, lively; but also unscrupulous and crafty. He was the last emperor to attempt to restore the Roman Empire to the territories it enjoyed under Theodosius I. To this end he directed his great wars and his colossal activity in building. Starting from the premise that the existence of a commonwealth rested upon arms and laws, he paid particular attention to legislation, and wrought a lasting memorial for himself by codifying the Roman law (the Codex Justinianus and the Novellae Constitutiones).
In 523 he married Theodora, a former actress. Actresses were socially akin to prostitutes prior to the reign of Justin I, and Justinian would in earlier times been unable to marry her. Justin had passed a law allowing intermarriage between social classes, which, during Justinian's reign, led to a blurring of class distinctions at the Byzantine court. Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire, and later emperors would follow Justinian's precedent and marry outside of the aristocratic class.
Procopius provides our primary source for the history of Justinian's reign, although the chronicle of John of Ephesus (which survives as the basis for many later chronicles) contributes many valuable details. Both historians became very bitter towards Justinian and Theodora. Aside from his main history Procopius also wrote the Secret History, which reports on various scandals at Justinian's court.
Theodora died in 548; Justinian outlived her for almost 20 years, and died on November 14 or 15, 565.
Legal Activities
Justinian achieved lasting fame for his judicial revolution, which organised Roman law in a form and organic scheme that remains in use more or less unaltered in some countries today (apart from obvious adaptations). The authorities issued the first draft of the Corpus Juris Civilis on April 7, 529 in three parts: Digesto (or Pandectae), Institutiones, and the Codex. A group of commissioners headed by the quaestor Tribonian drafted the Corpus in Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Empire which most citizens of the Eastern Empire understood but poorly. The Authenticum or Novellae Constitutiones, a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, later supplemented the Corpus. The Novellae appeared in Greek, the common language of the Empire.
The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon law: ecclesia vivit lege romana) and comprises a unique documentary reflection of activities in the remains of the Roman Empire at the time. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults (senatusconsulta), imperial decrees, case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (responsa prudentum ).
Military activites
Like his Roman predecessors and Byzantine successors, Justinian frequently engaged in war against Sassanid dynasty Persia. However, his military ambitions focused on the western Mediterranean, where his general Belisarius spearheaded the reconquest of parts of the territory of the old Roman Empire. Belisarius gained this task as a reward after successfully putting down the Nika riots in Constantinople in January of 532, in which chariot racing fanatics had forced Justinian to dismiss the unpopular Tribonian, and had then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself. Justinian considered fleeing the capital, but remained in the city on the advice of Theodora, and Belisarius arrived to crush the rebellion a few days later.
In 533 Belisarius reconquered North Africa from the Vandals after the Battle of Ad Decimum, near Carthage. Belisarius then advanced into Sicily and Italy, recapturing Rome (536) and the Ostrogoth capital at Ravenna (540).
Belisarius disagreed with Justinian over what to do with the reconquered land; Justinian wanted to let the Ostrogoths rule a tributary state, but Belisarius disagreed, wanting to make Italy an Imperial Roman territory. Justinian sent Belisarius to the East to defend against renewed attacks by the Persians. After establishing a new peace in the East in 545, Belisarius returned to Italy, but the Ostrogoths had recaptured Rome in his absence. The eunuch general Narses took over Belisarius' command, and the historian Procopius, a former officer in Belisarius' army, accused the general of treason. Belisarius briefly sufferred imprisonment, but Justinian later pardoned him and he defeated the Bulgars when they appeared on the Danube for the first time in 559. In 551, Byzantine forces conquered part of southern Spain from the Visigoths. Narses failed to defend Italy against either the Ostrogoths or the Lombards. Nevertheless, under Justinian, the empire's territory expanded greatly, if only for a short time.
Religious policy
Justinian's religious policy reflected the imperial conviction that the unity of the empire unconditionally presupposed unity of faith; and with him it seemed a matter of course that this faith could be only the orthodox. Those of a different belief had to recognize that the process which imperial legislation had begun from Constantius II down would now vigorously continue. The Codex contained two statutes (Cod., I., xi. 9 and 10) which decreed the total destruction of Hellenism, even in the civil life; nor were the appertaining provisions to stand merely on paper. The sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high positions.
But what proved of universal historic account, was the ruling whereby the emperor, in 529, abrogated philosophical and juridical instruction at the Academy of Plato of Athens, thus putting an end to this training-school for Hellenism. And the Christian propaganda went hand in hand with the suppression of paganism. In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus claimed to have converted 70,000 pagans (cf. F. Nau, in Revue de l'orient chretien, ii., 1897, 482). Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli (Procopius, Bellum Gothicum, ii. 14; Evagrius, Hist. eccl., iv. 20), the Huns dwelling near the Don (Procopius, iv. 4; Evagrius, iv. 23), the Abasgi (Procopius, iv. 3; Evagrius, iv. 22) and the Tzani (Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 15) in Caucasia.
The worship of Ammon at Augila in the Libyan desert (Procopius, De Aedificiis, vi. 2) was abolished; and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile (Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 19). The Presbyter Julian (DCB, iii. 482) and the Bishop Longinus (John of Ephesus, Hist. eccl., iv. 5 sqq.) conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by despatching thither an ecclesiastic of Egypt (Procopius, Bellum Persicum, i. 20; Malalas, ed. Niebuhr, Bonn, 1831, pp. 433 sqq.).
The Jews, too, had to suffer; for not only did the authorities restrict their civil rights (Cod., I., v. 12), and threaten their religious privileges (Procopius, Historia Arcana, 28); but the emperor interfered too in the internal affairs of the synagogue (Nov., cxlvi., Feb. 8, 553), and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. The recalcitrant were menaced with corporal penalties, exile and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted Belisarius in his Vandal campaign, had to embrace Christianity; and their synagogue became a church. (Procopius, De Aedificiis, vi. 2).
The emperor had much trouble with the Samaritans; refractory to Christianity, as they were, and repeatedly in insurrection. He opposed them with rigorous edicts, but yet could not prevent a fresh outbreak against the Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too sufferred severe persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment (Cod., I., v. 12). At Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by drowning (F. Nau, in Revue de l'orient, ii., 1897, p. 481).
Ecclesiastical Policy
Justinian.jpg
Justinian I depicted on a Byzantine mosaic
As with his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law.
At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law his belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation; and to threaten all heretics with the becoming penalties (Cod., I., i. 5); whereas he subsequently declared that he designed to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law (MPG, lxxxvi. 1, p. 993). He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church (Cod., I., i. 7), and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils (Novellae, cxxxi.). The bishops in attendance at the Second Council of Constantinople in 536 recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command (Mansi, Concilia, viii. 970B); while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription (Novellae, xlii). Bishops without number had to feel the tyrant's wrath. On the other hand, it is true, he neglected no opportunity for securing the rights of the Church and clergy, for protecting and extending monasticism.
Indeed, were not the despotic character of his measures so glaring, one might be tempted to call him a father of the Church. Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia, the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople.
Relations with Rome
From the middle of the fifth century onward increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in the province of ecclesiastical polity. For one thing, the radicals on all sides felt themselves constantly repelled by the creed which had been adopted by the Council of Chalcedon with the design of mediating between the dogmatic parties. The letter of Pope Leo I to Flavian of Constantinople was widely considered in the East as the work of Satan; so that nobody cared to hear aught of the Church of Rome. The emperors, however, had to wrestle with a twofold problem. In the first place they had a policy of preserving the unity between East and West, between Byzantium and Rome; and this remained possible only if they swerved not from the line defined at Chalcedon. In the next place, the factions in the East which had become stirred up and disaffected on account of Chalcedon needed restraining and pacifying. This problem proved the more difficult because the dissenting groups in the East excelled the party for Chalcedon in the East both in numerical strength and in intellectual ability; and so the course of events demonstrated the incompatibility of the two aims: whoever chose Rome and the West most renounce the East, and vice versa.
Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Monophysite schism that had prevailed between Rome and Byzantium since 483. The recognition of the Roman see as the highest ecclesiastical authority (compare Novellae, cxxxi.) remained the cornerstone of his policy in relation to the West, although he thus grievously offended those of the East, and though he felt himself entirely free to show a despotic front toward the popes (witness his behavior toward Silverius and Vigilius). But the controversies in the East proved alone sufficient to keep the emperor busy all through his reign; and he plainly paid much more attention to them than to the external affairs of the realm. Yet his policy bore marks of greatness, and strove with large understanding to satisfy the religious instincts of the devout in the East, a signal proof of which was his attitude in the Theopaschite controversy. At the outset he was of the opinion that the question turned on a quibble of words. By degrees, however, Jjustinian came to understand that the formula at issue not only appeared orthodox, but might also serve as a conciliatory measure toward the Monophysites, and he made a vain attempt to do this in the religious conference with the followers of Severus of Antioch, in 533.
Again, Justinian reviewed the same approvingly in the religious edict of March 15, 533 (Cod., L, i. 6), and congratulated himself that Pope John II admitted the orthodoxy of the imperial confession (Cod., I., i. 8). The serious blunder that he had made at the beginning by abetting after Justin's accession a severe persecution of the Monophysite bishops and monks and thereby embittering the population of vast regions and provinces, he remedied eventually. His constant aim now remained to win the Monophysites, yet not to surrender the Chalcedonian faith. For many at court, he did not go far enough: Theodora especially would have rejoiced to see the Monophysites favored unreservedly. Justinian, however, felt restrained in that policy by the complications that would have ensued with the West. Neither, for that matter, could he escape these issues; for instance, the Three-Chapter Controversy (see also Pope Vigilius). In the condemnation of the Three Chapters Justinian tried to satisfy both the East and the West, but succeeded in satisfying neither. Although the pope assented to the condemnation, the West believed that the emperor had acted contrary to the decrees of Chalcedon; and though many delegates emerged in the East subservient to Justinian, yet many, especially the Monophysites, remained unsatisfied. So the emperor squandered his efforts on an impossible task; the more bitter for him because during his last years he took a greater interest in theological matters.
Religious Writings
No doubt exists but that Justinian also took an actual, personal hand in the theological manifestoes which he put forth as emperor; although, in view of the author's exalted position, it becomes difficult to ascertain whether the documents current under his name came directly from his own pen. Apart from letters to the Popes Hormisdas, John II, Agapetus I, and Vigilius, and sundry other compositions (collected in MPL, lxiii., lxvi. and lxix.), the following documents may be noted (all to be found in MPG, lxxxvi. 1, pp. 945-1152):
1. the edict on Origen's heterodoxies, in 543 or 544;
2. summons to the bishops assembled at Constantinople on the occasion of the council of 553, with reference to their sitting in judgment on errors in circulation among the monastic followers of Origen at Jerusalem;
3. an edict on the Three Chapters, probably framed in 551;
4. an address to the council of 553, concerning the Antiochian theology;
5. a document, probably antedating 550, addressed to some unnamed defenders (perhaps Scythians) of the Three Chapters;
6. writ of excommunication against Anthimus, Severus and companions;
7. an address to some Egyptian monks, with a refutation of Monophysite errors;
8. a fragment of a document, mentioned in (7), to the Patriarch Zoilus of Alexandria.
The theology upheld in these writings agreed, in general, with that of Leontius of Byzantium; in that it aimed at the final solution of the problem by interpreting the Chalcedonian symbol in terms of the theology of Cyril of Alexandria. Two points deserve note in this connection. First, the clever way in which the emperor, or his representative, contrives to defend the reputation and the theology of Cyril; secondly, his antagonism to Origen: a clear sign of the characteristic disinclination of that age for independent thinking; at least among personages of weight and influence.
One should also mention Aphthartodocetism, a doctrine professed by the emperor toward the close of his life. Evagrius reports (Hist. eccl., iv. 39) (and other sources confirm the point) that Justinian promulgated an edict in which he declared Christ's body incorruptible and not susceptible to natural suffering, and commanded bishops everywhere to accept this doctrine. The fall of the Patriarch Eutychius links with this final phase of the imperial policy. The sources saw a lamentable decline from the right faith in Justinian's latter conduct. The train of thought underlying Aphthartodocetism, however, does not necessarily oppose orthodoxy (see Julian of Halicarnassus); because it need not deny the acceptance of the essential identity of Christ's nature with human nature. Hence one need not regard Justinian's final theological views as those of an old man, nor disregard them in surveying the aims of his full-bodied activity.
This article incorporates text from the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion
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Caesarea
By Jacqueline Schaalje
A first time visitor to Caesarea may get a surprise that so little seems left of the city's great history. Herod's harbour, once the biggest harbour in the entire old world, is now a baby-blue lagoon where noisy children bathe in the summer. Crusader warehouses turned into restaurants on the quay feed Israel's new rich. Outside the city hippie teenagers sit on the beach next to the Roman aqueduct, blowing smoke through the arches.
Apart from Caesarea's big monuments; the aqueduct, the theatre and the imposing city walls, what strikes the eye is utter wasteland. Strangely enough, the emptiness is guarded by fences. What, the innocent day-visitor will think, I hope it's not a security check again, what possible harm can a terrorist do here? Here lie some nice marble columns but the rest looks like a bomb has hit the place already. If the visitor has heard about the concerts which are held in Caesarea in the evening then he may think that the fences have something to do with it. This is correct.
Archaeologists, too, are behind lock and key. Sometimes certain areas of the site are inaccessible, when archaeologists are performing their mysterious digging. Until now only one area has been dug up rather extensively, located on a platform commanding the harbour, where Herod's temple stood; it was dedicated to the Roman emperor August. Later the stones of the temple were used to build a church. After that, Sultan Baybars used it as an observation post after he razed the town.
Since its inauguration by Herod in the first Century BCE the sea level gradually went up, and the original harbour structures collapsed through earthquakes. Today, underwater archaeology, which is executed by divers, tries to unravel the technique with which Herod's architects used to construct the completely artificial harbour.
Long history
The location that Ceaserea was built upon was originally a deserted Phoenician port called Strabo's Tower, of which some ruins exist. After King Herod acquired it, Caesarea became the capital of Judaea. After 6 BCE, when the country had become a Roman province, Roman prefects, or procurators kept the government seat here. One of these governors, the cruel Felix, kept Paul imprisoned in Caesarea for two years, upon charges of heresy, until he was sent to trial in Rome.
Herod, builder of Caesarea
Caesarea is most commonly associated with Herod. King Herod the Great (37-4 BCE) acquired the site as a present for his loyalty to the Roman Emperor August. Herod set out to build the city of Caesarea (called after Caesar) on a central strategic location. Herod set out to construct a harbour to rival the ones of Jaffa (Yafo) and Acre (Akko), in which he succeeded. Catering for the trade from the Far East to Rome and Greece, Caesarea became the largest harbour in the Mediterranean.
Revenues of the harbour were used for Herod's extensive building projects in other cities. The king, seeking consciously to associate with Rome, set out expressly to design his own capital after Greek/Roman examples. Although he was not the first to introduce the style, his aqueduct and theatre are the first in the Near East. Caesarea included several theatres, swimming pools and baths, Herod's palace and an esplanade with huge statues at the end of the piers stretching into the sea.
Even though Herod was not an observant Jew, his sensitivity for the Jewish religion is shown in the fact that he only built pagan temples dedicated to Caesar and Roman gods outside Jerusalem; the temple in Caesarea dedicated to August is an example of this. His most famous building project is the Second Temple in Jerusalem.
A description of both Caesarea's buildings and harbour is found in Josephus's The Jewish War (Book I, 408-415). Recent digs have largely confirmed his description of a splendid city in white stone (quarried from nearby hills). Josephus's knowledge that huge stone blocks were piled into the sea to lay the harbour's foundations also proved to be correct.
Modern engineering still marvels at the technique which Herod used to build the harbour. It seems certain that Herod brought Roman architects and engineers, whose methods are described in the first book on this subject, by Vetruvius, Herod's contemporary. Still some features of the harbour are unexplained; as in classical times as now, harbours are preferably built on positions where already a natural harbour or a bay exist.
Recent excavations of the underwater area have shed more light on the kind of stones that were used. The blocks which formed the basin floor were hollow, and had containers of wood. To prevent leaking through the sea bottom a special cement was used which held the inside stone rubble together. The "secret" ingredient of the cement was pozzolana, volcanic ash from Italy.
Another investigation turns around how the ocean floor could have been built. Experts think that the blocks for the floor must have been dropped from artificial islands. For this a lull in the sea movements had to be created. Walls were constructed as breakwaters; interestingly here the same technique was used as with the walls of Herod's Second Temple in Jerusalem. Large hewn or ashlar stones were piled without the aid of cement. The "Western Walls" of underwater Caesarea do not stand anymore however, as they all tumbled down.
Some scientists believe that the breakwater walls formed an intricate system of sluicing whereby the power of the sea was weakened, but how this functioned is not known yet. What seems certain is that the earthquake of 130 BCE pushed the harbour floor up, whereby the breakwaters came to lie just under the water surface. The result of this is 17 shipwrecks lying on the ocean floor, dating until the 5th Century when the harbour finally came into disuse. The shipwrecks are as yet largely unexplored.
Caesarea stayed prosperous also after the harbour had been heavily damaged through the earthquake in 130 BCE. The harbour still stayed in use, and the town made money by trading. Jews and Christians remained in the city, of which witness the erection of the church on top of the temple area, and a synagogue in another part.
Other Herodian remains in the city include parts of his palace (a pool) on a point next to the harbour, and on the platform the temple of August of which the foundations were excavated during recent digs. In the summer of 1999, excavations of stucco were found from one of the columns of the Herodian temple. It is the first find from the original temple.
Although some later additions were made, the theatre used for the Caesarea concerts is largely Herod's. In his amphitheatre horse races were held, until the bigger hippodrome was erected in the second Century BCE. In the amphitheatre recently the longest frescoes (over 100 meters) found in Israel were uncovered. They show animals and floral motives, and are not published yet.
Caesarea, Archaeology in Israel, Caesarea, Archaeology in Israel,Caesarea, Archaeology in Israel
Part of Mural
Near the theatre an important inscription was found, of which the replica is now hanging at the entrance to the theatre. The text names "Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judaea", and indicates that the Roman governor really existed. Other Roman remains are in the recently discovered governmental seat of Caesarea, in the South-western area near Herod's palace.
A conflict which broke out in Caesarea in 66 BCE fuelled the first Jewish War against the Romans. The population of the city was a mix of Jewish and gentile people. In the increasing tensions between them under Roman rule, fights broke out between Jews and gentiles, after which the country slid toward full-scale war.
The city became a study centre for rabbis, set up by Rabbi Bar Kappara at the beginning of the 3rd Century, and rivalled the centre of Rabbi Yehuda Hanasi in Sepphoris. Abbaye became Caesarea's most famous rabbi, living one century later.
After Herod
There are also some other Roman remains. Herod erected an aqueduct to the North of the city. This was necessary, because Caesarea did not possess a spring and did not have a river near. The aqueduct which stretches along the beach is a double one. The outer waterway was built by Herod, but the second was added under the Emperor Hadrian (117-38 BCE). Also a low aqueduct was built later, this may be found a bit further to the North. Hadrian also left a statue, at least it is thought to represent him, made of dark green porphyry. This is now in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.
Caesarea, Archaeology in Israel, Caesarea, Archaeology in Israel,Caesarea, Archaeology in Israel
Arch from Crusader period
The city was destroyed in 640 by the Arabs, after they had sneaked their way inside the walls by way of the aqueduct. By the 10th Century, Caesarea had dwindled to a village. It was conquered by the Byzantines and again in 1101 by the Crusaders. The crusader buildings are among the best preserved in the current site, besides the warehouses on the quay, there is also an archway and the porch, at the entrance to the site, which was erected by them.
On several points in the city remain finds of Byzantine times. An archive building, granaries, several warehouses and baths were discovered. Outside the city, on the North side, an ancient synagogue existed, but during our visit it was closed due to excavations. Different synagogues were built on top of each other, during the 3rd-5th Centuries BCE.
The most prominent reminder of the Crusader period is in the huge bulwarks and moat surrounding the inner city. The comparatively small size indicates that the city during the Middle Ages had dwindled since antique times. The East Gate, which one enters after passing through the ticket office, has been completely restored, and leads to a Crusader street. The big restaurant on the South side of the harbour crowns what used to be the citadel.
Caesarea next fell to Saladin in 1187. He destroyed the fortifications around the city. The heavy walls with a moat which are still standing strong were rebuilt by Louis IX of France (13th Century). The Mameluke sultan Baybars conquered the city in 1265, and destroyed it; all the inhabitants fled. A reminder of the Muslim period remains in the form of a little minaret tower next to the harbour, this is from the mosque of the Bosnian village (1878-1948).
Smaller finds from the site have been brought to various Museums, among which is the Caesarea Museum in Sdot Yam. The treasures on display include coins, pottery, sculpture etc. Other objects such as marble statues have been left in the area near the parking lot.
Material from list conferences
B-Greek Home Page
B-Greek is an electronic conference designed to foster communication concerning the scholarly study of the Greek Bible. Anyone interested in studying the Greek New Testament text is invited to subscribe, but the list will assume at least a working knowledge of Biblical Greek. The archives can be found here.
Kata Markon.
The Gospel of Mark Discussion List.
The Web Page on Divine Mediator Figures in the Biblical World
Includes list of resources, and several lectures from a course on the topic of Divine Mediators. (Dr. J.R. Davila)
The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha Web Page.
This page was created and is maintained by Dr. James R. Davila, Lecturer in Early Jewish Studies, for the honours course module DI3216 (postgraduate DI4214), "The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha," which was taught for the first time in the spring semester of 1997 at the UNiversity of St. Andrews. It includes links to several resources and lectures from this teaching course.
The Ioudaios
list conference is supposed to focus primarily on Ioudaica studies concerned with the works of Philo of Alexandria and Josephus, but a wide range of topics are discussed. Several articles have been posted to the server; they are easily downloadable. There is also a book review section, and material from the weekly updated "logbooks" are searchable and downloadable.
* You can read the latest messages sent to the list by clicking Messages.
* You get a list of the Ioudaios articles available by clicking Articles. You can then search by author or by title.
Ancient Mediterranean E-Mail List Archives.
Synoptic-L.
Synoptic-L is a Email conference for the discussion of the interrelationships of the Synoptic Gospels. Synoptic-L is an academic list devoted to the critical, scholarly study of the Synoptic Problem and although membership is open to anyone interested, it is hoped that Synoptic-L will be a home for high quality New Testament scholarship.
Research Projects
Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement (PACE)
The Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement (PACE) at York University aims to recover the Ancient Mediterranean World for our time in new ways. Its focus is the set of problems arising from the encounter and interaction of cultures: representation of one's own group and others', motivations for learning about or depicting the other, stereotypes (e.g., the barbarian) and rhetorical commonplaces, attraction to the exotic or revulsion at the alien, conscious assimilation or repudiation, and all the attendant problems of identity-construction.
A project, evaluating the Greek Bible as a source for Jewish interpretation
of the political, social and intellectual culture of the Hellenistic world.
La Bible Annotée
Malgré son titre sans prétention et son grand âge, la Bible Annotée, ou Bible de Neuchâtel, reste une œuvre inégalée. Elle se compose d'une traduction française originale de l'Ancien Testament, et d'un commentaire accompagnant chaque verset ou presque.
Septuaginta Deutsch.
Unser Projekt, verfolgt das Ziel, der Septuaginta in der deutschsprachigen Forschung die ihr gebührende Bedeutung zukommen zu lassen.
The International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies
The International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies (IOSCS) is a nonprofit, learned society formed to promote international research in and study of the Septuagint and related texts.
Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies
The IOSCS produces an annual bulletin, the Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies (BIOSCS). Each bulletin contains articles, news, and a record of work published or in progress.
The Greek Bible in the Graeco-Roman World
The project has two related goals. 1. A systematic assessment of existing criteria for the contextualisation of the translation of individual books or groups of books. Emphasis will fall on those books of the Greek Bible, which, by virtue of their content matter, offer substantial sources for historical contextualisation. 2. A major investigation into the language of the translators. The project will focus on a comparative examination of the political, legal and administrative terminology of the books (examples for comparison include court titles, legal terminology and conceptions of the hellenistic monarch).
"Jüdische Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit" (JSHRZ) Registerband. Das Register zu den JSHRZ umfaßt ein detailliertes Sach-, Namens-, Orts- und Stellenregister zur frühjüdischen Literatur und Religion des Zweiten Tempels. Das Register ist als Nachschlagewerk für alle relevanten Textstellen zu Personen und Figuren, Orten, theologischen Themen und Schlüsselbegriffen, literarischen Formen, historischen Ereignissen etc. gedacht.
Commentary on the Septuagint
Though other scholarly work has been undertaken with a focus on the Septuagint at various stages of its reception history or on the original meaning of individual books, a sustained effort, for the whole of the Septuagint, to understand the text at its point of inception remains, we believe, a desideratum.
La Bible d'Alexandrie.
Cette traduction a choisi de considérer le texte grec de la Bible non comme le décalque de l’hébreu, mais comme une création littéraire linguistiquement remarquable et historiquement féconde. Le texte est celui d’Alfred Rahlfs, «Septuaginta, id est Vetus Testamentum Graeca iuxta LXX interpretes», Stuttgart, 1935
Centre for Septuagint Studies
The Centre is involved in the comparative study of the Greek translations of the Old Testament – esp. the Septuagint – with the Hebrew text.
* Tools for Septuagint Studies A Bibliography.
Antike Sklaveri.
German project on ancient slavery.
Gary A. Anderson , Michael E. Stone, The Life of Adam and Eve: The Biblical Story in Judaism and Christianity.
The Authentic Pauline Letters and Documentary Papyri.
German version here: Analyse der Paulusbriefe auf dem Hintergrund dokumentarischer Papyri.
A Covenant to the Nations. A Research Project.
Drawing together scholars of philosophy, religious history, literature, and law, the Colloquium will consider the ongoing reflection about the concept of Israel as a "light to the nations" (Isa 42:6; 49:6) in ancient, medieval, and modern Jewish thought, together with its relevance for Christianity and contemporary philosophy and theory.
Archiv "Religionsgeschichtliche Schule".
Das Göttinger Archiv "Religionsgeschichtliche Schule", dessen Forschungsbetrieb bisher aus Mitteln der Thyssen-Stiftung finanziert wurde, widmet sich seit seiner Gründung 1987 der zusammenhängenden Dokumentation und Erforschung einer der bedeutendsten Richtungen der modernen liberalen Theologie, Die "Religionsgeschichtliche Schule", . Ziel ist es, jene über der anschließenden Prädominanz der dialektischen Theologie in Vergessenheit geratene Strömung in Erinnerung zu rufen und sämtliche erhaltene Dokumente ihres Wirkens der Forschung zugänglich zu machen.
Leiter: Prof. Dr. Gerd Lüdemann
The Original Bible Project . The Original Bible Project is a ten year effort to produce an entirely new translation of the complete Bible that will be ready by the year 2004.
The Construction of Christian Identity in Antiquity.
The project is sponsored by The Research Council of Norway's Antiquity Programme. The central object of this project is to look into the importance of Christianity for the construction of a new identity in late antiquity (Oslo/Bergen, Norway).
The Jesus Seminar Forum
The Jesus Seminar Forum is an introduction to the research of the Jesus Seminar of the Westar Institute & a bridge to Jesus scholarship on line.
The Context Group.
Project on the Bible in its Socio-Cultural Environment. The Context Group is an international working group of scholars devoted to the social-scientific study of the Bible.
Publications
of members of the Context Group.
Institutum Judaicum Delitzschianum Online
josephus.yorku.ca,
This site, josephus.yorku.ca was designed in conjunction with the Brill Josephus Project, a new series of commentaries and translations of the works of Flavius Josephus, and the associated SBL Josephus Seminar.It is dedicated to the scholarly study of the works of Flavius Josephus. It is managed by Steve Mason of York University (Toronto).
The International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies.
IOSCS is a nonprofit, learned society formed to promote international research in and study of the Septuagint and related texts. One of our major projects is the New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS). An international team of scholars has begun working together to create this new English translation.
CorpusHellenisticum.
Das Corpus Hellenisticum (CH) widmet sich der kulturgeschichtlichen Erforschung des Neuen Testaments. Als wirkmächtigste Kulturmacht der Antike prägt der Hellenismus auch die Schriften des Neuen Testaments. Ziel der Arbeit des CH ist es, die vielfältigen Verbindungen des Neuen Testaments zum Hellenismus darzustellen.
* Der neue Wettstein.
Der Neue Wettstein ist ein Projekt des Corpus Hellenisticums Abteilung am Institut für Bibelwissenschaften – Seminar für Neues Testament. Leitung: Prof. Dr. Udo Schnelle.
Corpus Judaeo- Hellenisticum Novi Testamenti.
Ziel dieses Forschungsprojektes ist die Bereitstellung von Zeugnissen des Frühjudentums, welches sich als durch die hellenistische Kultur und die politisch-ökonomischen Verhältnisse der hellenistisch-römischen Epoche beeinflußt zeigt, für die Erforschung und Interpretation des Neuen Testaments.
Jesus Sirach Ben Sira Ecclesiasticus.
Project on Ben Sira, and a lot of informative links.
Research Projects
of research team Research Department for Biblical Studies. Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, Belgium.
Reviews
Bryn Mawr Classical Review.
Bryn Mawr Classical Review has been published since late 1990 and will publish its thousandth item (nearly all reviews of current books in classical scholarship) in July 1996. It was joined in 1993 by Bryn Mawr Medieval Review, and subscriptions to the two journals may be made.
A part of The Ioudaios-L archives contains book-reviews. You get to them by clicking Book reviews .
Review of Biblical Literature,
from Society of Biblical Literature
Various journals available on the Internet
Journals
History Journals Guide;
an impressive list of links to journals of history, including several related to the Bible.
Online Journals.
A list of journals of biblical interest that are either published fully on the Web or that have home pages.
Electronic Journals & Newsletters.
This is the archive for New Jour, the Internet list for new journals and newsletters available on the Internet.
FindArtcles.com;
search and read 5.5 million articles from over 900 publications.
Australian Biblical Review,
published by the Fellowship for Biblical Studies Inc. and provides a forum for biblical scholars to make their research available to the international scholarly community. It is issued annually in November.
Arachnion
A Journal of Ancient Literature and History on the Web.
Biblical Interpretation,
a journal from Brill.No articles available online, but Index and subscription info.
Bibliotheca Sacra
Biblica (Rome)
Biblisches Forum.
Zeitschrift für Theologie aus biblischer Perspektive. Articles available on-line.
Bulletin for Biblical Research.
No articles available online, but Index and subscription info.
Currents in Biblical Research. Currents in Biblical Research formerly Currents in Research: Biblical Studies, now to be published twice yearly; first published 1993.
Journal of Biblical Studies.
Articles available online.
Novum Testamentum,
a NT journal from Brill. No articles available online, but Index and subscription info.
Revue Biblique.
Articles available online.
Denver Journal.
An Online Review of current Biblical and Theological Studies, from Denver Seminary.
* Denver Journal Volume One 1998
* Denver Journal Volume Two 1999
* Denver Journal Volume Three 2000
* Denver Journal Volume Four 2001
* Denver Journal Volume Five 2002
* Denver Journal Volume Six 2003
* Denver Journal Volume Seven 2004
On-line Partial Edition of Biblica.
With the launching of its on-line edition and starting with the first issue of Vol. 79, Biblica will also be published henceforth in part in electronic form on the Internet.
Études théologiques et religieuses.
Abstracts of articles available.
EULIMENE
EULIMENE is an annual academic periodical which contains studies in Classical Archaeology, Epigraphy, Numismatics, and Papyrology, with particular interest in the Greek and Roman Mediterranean world. List of Contents available.
Studiorum Novi Testamenti,
including link to New Testament Studies.
Göttinger Forum für Altertumswissenschaft.
Articles available.
Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism.
Articles available.
Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History and Biblical Studies.
Electronic Journal devoted to the historical and interdisciplinary studies on the Ancient Near East Civilizations. Latest articles available.
The Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin,
published by The Near East Archaeological Society (NEAS). Contains list of Contents.
Theologische Literaturzeitung.
Subscription information.
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society. Volumes 1995-2003 available online.
The Journal of Theological Studies.
Table of Contents available.
The Journal of Religion.
Available Tables of Contents.
The Journal for the Study of Rhetorical Criticism of the New Testament
is an on-line publication of the Rhetorical New Testament Project of the Institute of Antiquity and Christianity and is provided and maintained through the services of the Jones Academic Computer Center of the University of Redlands, Redlands, CA. Articles available on-line
Lectio difficilior;
is the first European refereed journal for feminist exegesis, hermeneutics and related disciplines (classical philology, archeology, egyptology, studies of the ancient Near Middle East, ancient history, history of art, social sciences, psychology, e.a.).Appears twice a year in Bern. French version here, and German version hier! Several articles in .html or .pdf format.
Tidsskrift for Kirke, Religion og Samfunn, Norway
HUGOYE: Journal of Syriac Studies,
see also the European mirror at HUGOYE: Journal of Syriac Studies.
Biblical Thology Bulletin .
Lists of contents available.
Histos,
The New Electronic Journal of Ancient Historiography
Journal of Higher Criticism.
The Journal of Higher Criticism was initiated in 1994 as a forthright attempt to hark back to the historical hypotheses and critical interpretations associated with the great names of F. C. Baur and Tübingen.The Journal is published by The Institute for Higher Critical Studies.
Scottish Journal of Theology
Scottish Journal of Theology is an international refereed quarterly journal of systematic, historical and biblical theology, founded in Scotland, edited in Princeton and Yale, and published by Cambridge University Press.
Revue Biblique
Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum / Journal of Ancient Christianity.
the Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum / Journal of Ancient Christianity (ZAC) is a refereed academic journal which aims at encouraging the dialogue between scholars of church history, history of religion, and classical antiquity with all its subdisciplines. Tables of contents available.
Die Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik
"Die Wissenschaft vom griechischen und römischen Altertum ist einer Auffrischung durch neue Texte und neue Fragestellungen sehr bedürftig. Eine solche Erneuerung gewähren neugefundene Papyri und Inschriften. Die Zeitschrift für Papyrologie soll dazu helfen, rasche Publikationen und anschließend rasche Diskussion neuer Texte möglich zu machen." Articles available on-line.
Zeitschrift für Neues Testament. Das Neue Testament in Universität, Kirche, Schule und Gesellschaft. Herausgegeben von Stefan Alkier, Axel von Dobbeler, Jürgen Zangenberg.
General articles/books (alphabetically listed by authors)
A lot of books are available on Religion Online . Below are listed only some of these.
The Biblical hermeneutics Page.
The Science of Interpreting the Bible.
Apocalypse
The evolution of apocalyptic belief, and how it shaped the western world.From www.pbs.org's Frontline.
Richard Heard, An Introduction to the New Testament.
Published by Harper & Brothers, New York, 1950.
Walter Bauer,Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity
English Translation ed and supplemented by Robert A. Kraft and Gerhard Kroedel with a team from the Philadelphia Seminar on Christian Origins [Copyright Fortress Press, Philadelphia, 1971].
Updated Electronic English Edition by Robert A. Kraft [Copyright Robert A. Kraft, 25 February 1991]
Cullmann, Oscar, Immortality of the Soul or Resurrection of the Dead?
Oscar Cullmann, Baptism in the New Testament.
Studies in Biblical Theology No. 1. London: SCM Press,1950.
C.H. Dodd, The Apostolic Preaching and Its Developments,
published by Harper and Row, 1964.
Like til jordens ender.
Internettboka for lærere om Det nye testamente. Av Tormod Tobiassen, Høgskolen i Bergen.(Elementary Textbook to the New Testament on the Internett (Norwegian))
Alfred Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1953).
George Edmundson, Church in Rome in the First Century.
William Lane Craig, The Historicity of the Empty Tomb of Jesus
Dibelius,Martin, Jesus. Published in 1949 by Westminster Press, Philadelphia.
Jeremias,Joachim, The Lord's Prayer.
Jeremias, Joachim,The Sermon on the Mount
Mark Goodacre, 'Drawing from the Treasure Both New and Old': Current Trends in New Testament Studies.
his article first appeared in Scripture Bulletin 27/2 (July 1997), pp. 66-77.
Gowler, David B.,Heteroglossic Trends in Biblical Studies: Polyphonic Dialogues or Clanging Cymbals?. Originally published in Review and Expositor 97 (2000): 443-66.
Robert A. Grant, A Historical Introduction to the New Testament
Robert Kraft, The Multiform Jewish Heritage of Early Christianity
Robert A. Kraft, Some Notes On Sabath Onservance In Early Christianity
Robert A. Kraft, The Development Of The Concept Of ""Orthodoxy"' In Early Cjristianity
Robert A. Kraft, Was There a "Messiah-Joshua" Tradition At The Turn Of The Era?
William Loader, Unity in New Testament Perspective.
an address first given at the Uniting Church Committee for Church Unity and then at the Conference of Churches of Western Australia 1996.
Steve Moyise, Intertextuality and the study of the Old Testament in the New,
in The Old Testament in the New. Essays in Honour of J.L.North JSNTSup 189; Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.
Steve Moyise, Does the NT Quote the OT Out Of Context?'
ANVIL 11, 1994:133-143.
Die Bibel;
Versuch einer Einfuhrung. by Jörg Sieger
1. Allgemeine Einleitung in das Alte Testament - . Text, geschichtlicher Hintergrund und Methoden der wissenschaftlichen Exegese.
2. Einleitung in das NT Zeitgeschichtlicher Hintergrund.
Tzvee Zahavy, Apocalyptic Radicalism and Religion.
Thomas-New Testament:
Several articles relating the Gospel of Thomas to the New Testament. Vernon K. Robbins, Why Participate in African Biblical Interpretation?. Written originally for the NTSSA meeting at the University of Pretoria, April 17-20, 2001.
Vernon K. Robbins, "Writing as a Rhetorical Act in Plutarch and the Gospels." In Persuasive Artistry: Studies in New Testament Rhetoric in Honor of George A. Kennedy. D. F. Watson, ed. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991: 157-186.
Michael I. Rostovtzeff., The Hellenistic World and Its Economic Development.
Presidential Address delivered before the American Historical Association at Chattanooga on December 28, 1935. American Historical Review 41:2 (January 1936): 231-52.
J.D.H. Amador, Socio-Rhetorical Criticism and the Parable of the Tenants.
Published as "Socio-Rhetorical Criticism and the Parable of the Tenants," Journal for the Study of the New Testament 45(1992), 27-57.
J.D.H. Amador, Feminist Biblical Hermeneutics: A Failure of Theoretical Nerve.
Published as "Feminist Biblical Hermeneutics: A Failure of Theoretical Nerve," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 66 (1998), 39-57.
J.D.H. Amador, The Word Made Flesh:Epistemology, Ontology and Postmodern Rhetorics.
Published as "The Word Made Flesh: Epistemology, Ontology & Postmodern Rhetorics," The Rhetorical Analysis of Scripture: Essays from the 1995 London Conference (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997).
J.D.H. Amador, Rediscovering and Re-inventing Rhetoric.
J.D.H. Amador, Where could Rhetorical Criticism 8still) takes us?
Published as "Where Could Rhetorical Criticism (Still) Take Us?" Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 7 (October 1999).
Vernon K. Robbins, The Dialectical Nature of Early Christian Discourse
Orig. printed in Scriptura 59 (1996), pp. 353-362.©
Vernon K. Robbins, Socio-Rhetorical Hermeneutics and Commentary.
" In EPI TO AYTO. Essays in honour of Petr Pokorny, 284-297. J. Mrazek, R. Dvorakova, and S. Brodsky, eds. Praha-Trebenice, Czech Republic: Mlyn, 1998.
R.P. Carroll. The reader and the Text
The Doctrine of Justification in the Work of N.T. Wright
Articles, Sites etc related to the study of "The Historical Jesus."
Theories of the Historical Jesus.
The purpose of this web page is to explain and explore some of the theories offered up by contemporary scholars on the origins of the Christian religion. Compiled by Peter Kirby.
Palestine in the Time of Jesus: Social Structures and Social Conflicts.
The IBR Jesus Group
* Robert L. Webb, Jesus’ Baptism: Its Historicity and Implications
* Scot McKnight, Jesus and the Twelve
A Portrait of Jesus. A website dedicated to the historical Jesus, influenced by the research of Marcus Borg.
Into His Own. Perspective on the World of Jesus, by Mahlon H. Smith, Rutgers University.
Douglas E. Oakman,The radical Jesus: you cannot serve God and Mammon, published in Biblical Theology Bulletin 2004.
William Loader, Mark 7,1-23 and the Historical Jesus.
first published in Colloquium 30.2(1998) 123-151.
William Loader, The Historical Jesus Puzzle.
published in Colloquium 29.2 (1997) 131-150.
William Loader, Jesus, the Jew.
A paper read at the Western Australian Council of Christians and Jews and published in Gesher. The Official Journal of the Council of Christians and Jews (Vic) Inc. 1/6 (1997) 48-56 and Trinity Occasional Papers XVII,2 (1997) 5-24.
John. P. Meier, The Historical Jesus and the Historical Samaritans:What can be Said?
, from Biblica 81 (2000) 202-232.
Finding the Historical Jesus:An Interview With John P. Meier
, from St. Anthony Messenger.
John P. Meier, The Present State of the ‘Third Quest’ for the Historical Jesus: Loss and Gain
, from Biblica 80 (1999) 459-487.
Ancient Jewish Accounts of Jesus.
Some texts.
A Portrait of Jesus.From Galilean Jew to the Face of God.
"A Portrait of Jesus" website created with permission of Marcus Borg by Cam Howard, United Theological Seminary,Dayton, OH
From Jesus to Christ.
A Frontline OnLine site, related to the TV film From Jesus to Christ.
The Jesus Seminar Forum"The Jesus Seminar Forum is an introduction to the research of the Jesus Seminar of the Westar Institute & a bridge to Jesus scholarship on line."
Articles etc related to the Synoptic Gospels
The Synoptic Problem
The Synoptic Problem.
An Introduction to various theories, by Stephen C. Carlson.
A Synoptic Gospels primer.
Very useful, by Mahlon H. Smith .
* Hypotyposeis a weblog on Sketches in Biblical Studies by Stephen C. Carlson.
William R. Farmer, The Present State Of The Synoptic Problem
The Two Gospel Hypothesis,
by Thomas R.W. Longstaff.
The Five Gospels Parallels.Edited by John W. Marshall. 1996 - 2001. Department for the Study of Religion, University of Toronto.
The Case Against Q.
Mark Goodacre's Synoptic Problem Web Page.
Allan J. McNicol, Has Goulder Sunk Q?
An Assessment of Mark Goodacre’s Goulder and the Gospels: An Examination of a New Paradigm.
Bibliography on the Synoptic problem.
The Synoptic Gospels
General
P.-Y. Brandt - A. Lukinovich, L’adresse à Jésus dans les évangiles synoptiques,
from Biblica 82 (2001) 17-50.
Mark Goodacre, Fatigue in the Synoptics
J.D.H. Amador, Socio-Rhetorical Criticism and the Parable of the Tenants.
Published as "Socio-Rhetorical Criticism and the Parable of the Tenants," Journal for the Study of the New Testament 45(1992), 27-57.
Rene Girard, Are the Gospels Mythical?
Austin Farrer, On Dispensing With Q.
This article originally appeared in D. E. Nineham (ed.), Studies in the Gospels: Essays in Memory of R. H. Lightfoot(Oxford: Blackwell, 1955), pp. 55-88, © 1955 Basil Blackwell.
Parables and their Social Contexts.
from What Are They Saying About the Parables? Paulist Press, 2000, David B. Gowler, Oxford College of Emory University.
Hanna Stettler, Sanctification in the Jesus Tradition, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 153-178.
K.C. Hanson, The Galilean Fishing Economy and the Jesus Tradition
Published in Biblical Theology Bulletin 27 (1997): © 1997 Reprinted by permission of the publisher).
Vernon K. Robbins, "Progymnastic Rhetorical Composition and Pre-Gospel Traditions: A New Approach." In The Synoptic Gospels: Source Criticism and the New Literary Criticism. C. Focant, ed. BETL 110. Leuven: Leuven Univ. Press, 1993: 111-147.
David Seeley, Blessings and Boundaries: Interpretations of Jesus' Death in Q.
This article first appeared in Early Christianity, Q and Jesus, Semeia 55 (ed. John S. Kloppenborg; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991) 131-46.©
David Seeley, Jesus' Death in Q.
This article first appeared in New Testament Studies 38 (1992) 222-34.©
Brian Capper, 'The New Covenant in Southern Palestine at the Arrest of Jesus' (An earlier version of the paper published as: 'The New Covenant in Southern Palestine at the Arrest of Jesus' in James R. Davila (ed.) The Dead Sea Scrolls as Background to Postbiblical Judaism and Early Christianity (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2003) pp. 90-116.
Gospel of Matthew
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for The Gospel of Matthew
Sigrid Peterson, Review of C.P.Thiede's article on the Matthew fragments.
Exegetical studies
Robert L. MOWERY, Son of God in Roman Imperial Titles and Matthew, from Biblica 83 (2002) 100-110.
K.C. Hanson, Transformed on the Mountain Ritual Analysis and the Gospel of Matthew
Marc Rastoin, "Pierre 'fils de la colombe' en Mt 16,17?" , Biblica 83 (2002) 549-555.
Noel S. Rabbinowitz, Matthew 23:2–4: Does Jesus Recognize The Authority of the Pharisees and does he Endorse their Halakhah?. JETS 46/3 2003, pp. 423-447.
K.C. Hanson, How Honorable! How Shameful! A Cultural Analysis of Matthew's Makarisms and Reproaches
Gospel of Mark
Introductory
Kata Markon.
The Gospel of Mark Discussion List.
Peter Kirby's Online sources for The Gospel of Mark
The Mark Group of the Society of Biblical Literature
Exegetical studies
J.D.H. Amador, Dramatic Inconclusion: Irony and The Narrative Rhetoric of the Ending of Mark
Published as "Dramatic Inconclusion: Irony and the Narrative rhetoric of the Ending of Mark," Journal for the Study of the New Testament 57 (1995), 61-86.
Jeffrey H. Krantz, Crucified Son of Man or Mighty One? Mark's Chiastic Gospel Structure and the question of Jesus' identity
Paul Danove, "The Rhetoric of the Characterization of Jesus as the Son of Man and Christ in Mark," Biblica 84 (2003) 16-34.
Einführung in das Markus-Evangelium an Hand von Mk 1,21-28
Joanna Dewey, "Let them renounce themselves and take up their cross": a feminist reading of Mark 8:34 in Mark's social and narrative world. Published in Biblical Theology Bulletin, Fall, 2004.
Vernon K. Robbins, The Present and Future of Rhetorical Analysis
." In The Rhetorical Analysis of Scripture: Essays from the 1995 London Conference, 24-52. S. E. Porter and T. H. Olbricht, eds. Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series 146. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.
7Q5 = Mark 6.52-53 A Challenge For Textual Criticism?
from JGRChJ 2 (2001–2005) 27-35.
Vernon K. Robbins, The Reversed Contextualization of Psalm 22 in the Markan Crucifixion: A Socio-Rhetorical Analysis.In The Four Gospels 1992. Festschrift Frans Neirynck, Vol. 2. F. van Segbroeck, C. M. Tuckett, G. Van Belle, J. Verheyden, eds. BETL 100. Leuven: Leuven Univ. Press, 1992: 1161-1183.
Vernon K. Robbins, "The Intertexture of Apocalyptic Discourse in the Gospel of Mark." In The Intertexture of Apocalyptic Discourse in the New Testament. D. F. Watson, ed. SBL Symposium Series 14. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002: 11-44.
Vernon K. Robbins, "Rhetorical Ritual: Apocalyptic Discourse in Mark 13." In Vision and Persuasion: Rhetorical Dimensions of Apocalyptic Discourse. G. Carey and L. G. Bloomquist, eds. St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 1999: 95-121.
David Ulansey, The Heavenly Veil Torn: Mark's Cosmic "Inclusio".
Originally published in Journal of Biblical Literature 110:1 (Spring 1991) pp. 123-25.
Jerome H. Neyrey,"Questions, Chreai, and Challenges to Honor. The Interface of Rhetoric and Culture in Mark's Gospel."
Catholic Biblical Quarterly 60 (1998):657-81.
Jerome H. Neyrey, "'It Was Out of Envy That They Handed Jesus Over' (Mark 15:10): The Anatomy of Envy and the Gospel of Mark."
Journal for the Study of the New Testament 69 (1998):15-56.
Jerome H. Neyrey, "A Symbolic Approach to Mark 7."
Forum 4,3 (1988):63-91.
Dominic Rudman, "The Crucifixion as Chaoskampf: A New Reading of the Passion Narrative in the Synoptic Gospels," Biblica 84(2003) 102-107.
Gospel of Luke
Introductory
The Gospel of Luke.
a website dedicated to the writings of St. Luke.
Peter Kirby's Online sources for The Gospel of Luke
Vernon K. Robbins, "The Social Location of the Implied Author of Luke-Acts." In The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation. J. H. Neyrey, ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991: 305-332.
Vernon K. Robbins, "Luke-Acts: A Mixed Population Seeks a Home in the Roman Empire."In Images of Empire. L. Alexander. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991: 202-221.
Exegetical studies
Vernon K. Robbins, "The Claims of the Prologues and Greco-Roman Rhetoric: The Prefaces to Luke and Acts in Light of Greco-Roman Rhetorical Strategies." . In Jesus and the Heritage of Israel: Luke's Narrative Claim upon Israel's Legacy. D. P. Moessner, ed. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1999: 63-83.
Vernon K. Robbins, "Socio-Rhetorical Criticism: Mary, Elizabeth, and the Magnificat as a Test Case." In The New Literary Criticism and the New Testament. E. S. Malbon and E. V. McKnight, eds. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994: 164-209.
Warren Heard Northbrook, Il , Luke's Attitude Towards the Rich and the Poor. A helpful study that demonstrates a focus and theme in dealing with the rich and poor on Luke's Gospel.
Böhler, D., Jesus als Davidssohn bei Lukas und Micha.
Biblica 79 (1998) 332-538.
Vernon K. Robbins, The Socio-Rhetorical Role of Old Testament Scripture in Luke 4-19.". In Z Noveho Zakona /From the New Testament: Sbornik k narozeninam Prof. ThDr. Zdenka Sazavy. Hana Tonzarova and Petr Melmuk, eds. Praha: Vydala Cirkev ceskoslovenska husitska, 2001: 81-93.
Kilgallen, John J., Martha and Mary: Why at Luke 10,38-42? Published in Biblica 84(2003) 554-561
Landry, David, Honor Restored: New Light on the Parable of the Prudent Steward (Luke 16:1-8a).
Topel, John, What Kind of a Sign are Vultures? Luke 17,37b. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 403-411.
Kilgallen, John J., Jesus’ First Trial:Messiah and Son of God (Luke 22,66-71).
Biblica 80 (1999) 401-414.
Vernon K. Robbins, From Enthymeme to Theology in Luke 11:1-13
." In Literary Studies in Luke-Acts: A Collection of Essays in Honor of Joseph B. Tyson. R. P. Thompson and T. E. Phillips, eds. Macon, GA: Mercer Univ. Press, 1998.
Greg Herrick, Th.M., The Atonement in Lucan Theology in Recent Discussion
Jerome H. Neyrey, Honoring the Dishonored: The Cultural Edge of Jesus' Beatitudes
In Modelling Early Christianity: Social-Scientific Studies of the New Testament in Its Context, 139-58. P. F. Esler, ed. London: Routledge, 1995.
Articles, etc. related to the Gospel of John
Introductory
Felix Just, Johannine Works on the Web;
Johannine Bibliography
"Johannine_Literature".
Homepage of the Moderated Internet Group for the Academic Discussion of the Fourth Gospel and the Letters of John.
"Gospel-of-John".
Homepage of the Internet Discussion Group on the Gospel according to John.
Peter Kirby's Online sources for the Gospel of John
Armand J. Gagne Jr. The Fourth Gospel of John and the Epistles.
Home Page for Research. "During the past forty years, I have maintained a bibliography of Fourth Gospel Books and journal articles. This homepage is dedicated to all those who have an interest in this area of Biblical Studies."
Felix Just, Johannine Literature.
Materials for the Study of the The Fourth Gospel & The Letters of John.
Adam C. English, Feeding Imagery in the Gospel of John: Uniting the Physical and the SpiritualPresented to the SBL "Johannine Literature Section" on Monday 11/20/00.
Exegetical studies
Peter Wick ,Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 179-198.
Peter M. Head, The Habits of New Testament Copyists. Singular Readings in the Early Fragmentary Papyri of John, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 399-408.
Brian Capper, '"With the Oldest Monks..." Light from Essene History on the Career of the Beloved Disciple?', Journal of Theological Studies 49 (1998) pp. 1–55.
Müller, Christoph G. Der Zeuge und das Licht. Joh 1,1–4,3 und das Darstellungsprinzip der su/gkrisij. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 479-509.
Urban C. von Wahlde, He Has Given to the Son To Have Life in Himself (John 5,26), published in Biblica 85 (2004) 409-412.
Cornelis Bennema, "Spirit-Baptism in the Fourth Gospel. A Messianic Reading of John 1,33," Biblica 84(2003)
Roose, Hanna, Joh 20,30f.: Ein (un)passender Schluss? Joh 9 und 11 als primäre Verweisstellen der Schlussnotiz des Johannesevangeliums. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 326-343.
Nicklas, Tobias, ‘153 große Fische’ (Joh 21,11) Erzählerische Ökonomie und ‘johanneischer Überstieg’. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 366-387.
David L. Barr, "As the Father Has Sent Me" Community Dialogues in John 20
Terry A. Larm, Signs in the Fourth Gospel: What is the Evangelist Doing?
Theological Gathering Fall 1996.
Xavier Levieils, Juifs et Grecs dans la communauté johannique, from Biblica 82 (2001) 51-78.
Bruce J. Malina, The Gospel of John in Sociolinguistic Perspective.
(Protocol of the 48th Colloquy, March 1984)Berkeley: Center for Hermeneutical Studies, 1985.
Bruce J. Malina, John's: The Maverick Christian Group: The Evidence of Sociolinguistics.
Published in Biblical Theology Bulletin 24 (1994):167-82.(© 1996; Reprinted here by permission of the publisher).
Richard L. Rohrbaugh, The Gospel of John in the Twenty-First Century.
Published in Readers and Readings of the Fourth Gospel. Fernando Segovia, ed. SBL Symposium Series. Atlanta: Scholars Press (forthcoming 1998)
James F. McGrath: Going Up and Coming Down in Johannine Apologetic.
read at the British New Testament Conference, University of Aberdeen, Saturday 14 September 1996 (forthcoming in Neotestamentica).
James F. McGrath: "Are Christians Monotheists? The Answer of St. John's Gospel".
Lecture given at the North of England Institute for Christian Education Sixth Form Study Day, University of Durham, 27 March 98.
Jerome H. Neyrey, "The Sociology of Secrecy and the Fourth Gospel."
In What Is John? Vol. II: Literary and Social Readings of the Fourth Gospel, 79-109. F. Segovia, ed. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998.
Jerome H. Neyrey, "What's Wrong With This Picture? John 4, Cultural Stereotypes of Women, and Public and Private Space."
Biblical Theology Bulletin 24 (1994):77-91.
Jerome H. Neyrey, "The Trials (Forensic) and Tribulations (Honor Challenges) of Jesus: John 7 in Social Science Perspective."
Biblical Theology Bulletin 26 (1996):107-24.
M. Labahn, Between Tradition and Literary Art: The Miracle Tradition in the Fourth Gospel,
from Biblica 80 (1999) 178-203.
A. Watson, Jesus and the Adulteress.
from Biblica 80 (1999) 100-108.
Jerome H. Neyrey, "The Footwashing in John 13:6-11: Transformation Ritual or Ceremony?"
In The Social World of the First Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks, 198-213. L. M. White and O. L. Yarbrough. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995.
Jerome H. Neyrey, "Despising the Shame of the Cross: Honor and Shame in the Johannine Passion Narrative."
Semeia 69 (1996):113-37.
Articles concering the Acts of the Apostles
Introductory
General resources for the study of Acts
The Acts of the Apostles
webpage made by Felix Just. Contains Introduction, Outline, Themes, Questions, and Bibliography.
The Acts of The Apostles In Hellenistic writings
The Acts of the Apostles in Hellenistic Writings.
Peter Kirby's Online sources for the Acts of the Apostles
Brian Capper, 'Public Body, Private Women. The Ideology of Gender and Space and the Exclusion of Women from Public Leadership in the Late First–Century Church', in Theology and the Body, ed. Robert Hannaford and J'annine Jobling (Leominster, Gracewing, 1999) pp. 123–151.
Brian Capper,'Reciprocity and the Ethics of Acts', in I.Howard Marshall and David Peterson (eds.), Witness to the Gospel. The Theology of Acts (Grand Rapids, Michigan, Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 499–518.
Brian Capper, Order and Ministry in the Social Pattern of the New Testament Church', in Order and Ministry, ed. C. Hall and R. Hannaford (Leominster, Gracewing, 1996) pp. 61-103.
Brian Capper, 'Community of Goods in the Early Jerusalem Church', in Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt, ed. H. Temporini & W. Haase, series II, volume 26, part 2 (Berlin, De Gruyter, 1995), pp. 1730-1774.
Brian Capper, 'The Palestinian Cultural Context of Earliest Christian Community of Goods' in The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting (Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 1995), ed. R. J. Bauckham (volume 4 of The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting), pp. 323-356.
A.J. Mattill, The Purpose of Acts: Schneckenburger Reconsidered
from W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. Hbk. ISBN: 085364098X. pp.108-122.
D.F Payne, "Semitisms in the Books of Acts,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.134-150.
I. Howard Marshall, "The Resurrection in the Acts of the Apostles,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. Hbk. ISBN: 085364098X. pp.92-107.
A. J. B. Higgins, "The Preface to Luke and the Kerygma in Acts,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. Hbk. ISBN: 085364098X. pp.78-91.
E. Earle Ellis, "The Role of the Christian Prophet in Acts,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. Hbk. ISBN: 085364098X. pp.55-67.
Floyd V. Filson, "The Journey Motif in Luke-Acts,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. Hbk. ISBN: 085364098X. pp.68-77.
Ramsay, William M., The Church in the Roman Empire Before A.D. 170 , published 1893.
Ramsay, William M.,Luke, the Physician, issued 1908.
Exegetical studies
Bruce M. Metzger, "Ancient Astrological Geography and Acts 2:9-11,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. Hbk. ISBN: 085364098X. pp.123-133.
John J. Kilgallen, ‘With many other words’ (Acts 2,40):Theological Assumptions in Peter’s Pentecost Speech, from Biblica 83 (2002) 71-87.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "Stephen's Speech: A Possible Model for Luke's Historical Method?" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Spring 1974), pp. 91-97.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "Stephen's Speech and the World Mission of the People of God," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 21, No. 2 (June 1978), pp. 131-141.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "Parties in the Church of Jerusalem as Seen in Acts," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Fall 1975), pp. 217-227.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "The Effects of the Fall of Jerusalem on Christianity," Proceedings (Eastern Great Lakes Biblical Society), Vol. 3 (1983).
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "Acts 10:34, A Text for Racial and Cultural Reconciliation Among Christians," The Gospel in Black and White. Dennis L. Okholm, ed. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997), 131-139.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "The Cornelius Incident in the Light of Its Jewish Setting," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol 34, No 4 (December 1991), pp. 475-484.
John J. Kilgallen, "Hostility to Paul in Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13,45) - Why?" , Biblica 84(2003) 1-15.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "The Church's Progress to the Council of Jerusalem," Bulletin for Biblical Research 7 (1997), pp. 205-224.
Trobisch, David.,"The Council of Jerusalem in Acts 15 and Paul's Letter to the Galatians", .from Christopher Seitz and Kathryn Greene-McCreight (ed.), Theological Exegesis: Essays in Honor of Brevard S. Childs (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999). (pdf file).
N. B. Stonehouse, The Areopagus Address.The lecture was delivered in the Divinity School. Cambridge, on July 13, 1949.
K. Litwak, Israel’s Prophets Meet Athens’ Philosophers: Scriptural Echoes in Acts 17,22-31, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 199-216.
Paul's Shipwreck
An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28.
Robbins, Vernon K., PERSPECTIVES ON LUKE-ACTS: By Land and By Sea: The We-Passages and Ancient Sea Voyages Originally appeared in: Perspectives on Luke-Acts. C. H. Talbert, ed. Perspectives in Religious Studies, Special Studies Series, No. 5. Macon, Ga: Mercer Univ. Press and Edinburgh: T.& T. Clark, 1978: 215-242. A PDF version is to me found here.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "The Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15)," read at National Meeting of Evangelical Theological Society. San Francisco, CA 1992.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "The Church of Jerusalem in Acts: The Final Scene," read at National Meeting of Evangelical Theological Society. Philadelphia, PA, (1995).
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "Glimpses of Jewish Christianity from the End of Acts to Justin Martyr (A.D. 62-150)", Evangelical Theological Society, National Meeting, Santa Clara, CA. (1997).
Jerome H. Neyrey,"Acts 17, Epicureans and Theodicy: A Study in Stereotypes."
In Greeks, Romans, and Christians: Essays Honor of Abraham J. Malherbe, 118-34. D. L. Balch and W. A. Meeks. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990.
Parker, Floyd, The Terms "Angel" and "Spirit" in Acts 23,8. Published in Biblica Biblica 84 (2003) 344-365.
Jerome H. Neyrey, "Luke's Social Location of Paul: Cultural Anthropology and the Status of Paul in Acts."
in History, Literature, and Society in the Book of Acts, 251-79. B. Witherington III. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996.
Marguerat, Daniel, The Enigma of the Silent Closing of Acts (28.16-31). Published n D.P Moessner ed., Jesus and the Heritage of Israel (Harrisburg, Trinity Press, 1999), pp.284-304.
Paulus Online Spiel
; yes, a little game for you.....
Sites and articles related to Paul's letters
Corpus Paul;
a mailing list on Pauline Studies.
General on Paul
As Paul tells it..,
A presentation of the life and work,- and social world, of Paul; taking its points of departures in Paul's letters.
A Paul Page;
dedicated to the new perspective on Paul.
Francis Watson, Not the New Perspective. An unpublished paper delivered at the British New Testament Conference, Manchester, September 2001.
Jeffrey Peterson, The Extent Of Christian Theological Diversity: Pauline Evidence
Saint Paul the Apostle.
Another page with info about background, life, epistles etc etc. of Paul.
Pamela Eisenbraun, Is Paul The Father of Misogyny and Antisemitism?
Reed, Anette Yoshiko, Abraham as Culture Hero. Ant. 1,154-68 and the Greco-Roman Discourse about Astrology/Astronomy. From SBL Josephus Seminar 2002.
Rudolf Schnackenberg, "Apostles Before and During Paul's Time,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.297-303.
Alfred Suhl, Grundkurs "Basiswissen zur Chronologie des Apostels Paulus"
In the footsteps of Paul
An overview of Paul's travels; useful for students.
The Manuscripts of Paul
Saint Paul the Apostle.
Contains sections on Paul\s cultural backgroun, life, epistles, theology, his impact, and a bibliography.
W.M. Ramsay, St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen
The old famous book in online version.
Journeys of Paul
, by Craig Koester at Luther Seminary.
Paul's shipwreck An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28.
William Barclay, "A Comparison of Paul's Missionary Preaching and Preaching to the Church,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.165-175.
H. L. Ellison, "Paul and the Law - "All Things to All Men","
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.192-202.
Jacques Dupont, O.S.B., "The Conversion of Paul, and Its Influence on His Understanding of Salvation by Faith,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.176-194.
Bastian Van Elderen, "Some Archaeological Observations on Paul's First Missionary Journey,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970.pp.150-161.
The Divine Benefactions Of Paul The Client.
JGRChJ 2 (2001–2005) 9-26.
General on
Paul's Letters and Theology
Paul and the pauline epistles.
Various links to articles and reviews
Trobisch, David.,How to read an ancient letter collection. Prolegomena to a narrative critical study of the Letters of Paul. SBL International conference, Lahti, Tuesday 7/21/99.
Richard Bauckham, Paul's Christology of Divine Identity
N.T. Wright, One God, One Lord, One People. Incarnational Christology for a Church in a Pagan Environment.
From Ex Auditu.
G. E. Ladd, "Revelation and Tradition in Paul,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.223-230.
Paul E. Koptak, Rhetorical Identification In Paul's Autobiographical Narrative.
From Journal for the Study of the New Testament 40 (1990), pp. 97 - 113. Also reprinted in New Testament Interpretation and Methods; A Sheffield Reader, ed. S.E. Porter and C.A. Evans. Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.)
Daniel Boyarin, A Radical Jew.
Full text of his 1994 book, University of California Press.
Risto Santala , Paul, the Man and the Teacher in the light of Jewish Sources.
Mathewson, Dave, Verbal Aspect in Imperatival Constructions in Pauline Ethical Injunctions, Filología Neotestamentaria 9 (1996) 21-36.
1-2 Thessalonians
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 1 Thessalonians
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 2 Thessalonians
A website devoted to the study of the First and Second Epistles of Paul to the Thessalonians.
This site will reflect Michael W. Pahl's doctoral research in the Thessalonian epistles, as well as providing a fairly comprehensive selection of the best the web has to offer.
Exegetical studies
James D. Hester, Apocalyptic Discourse in I Thessalonians.
1-2 Corinthians
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 1 Corinthians
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 2 Corinthians
Exegetical studies
Alan. R. Millard, "Covenant and Communion in First Corinthians,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.242-248.
Smit, Joop F.M.,Epideictic Rhetoric in Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians 1–4. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 184-201.
Schneider, Sebastian, Glaubensmängel in Korinth. Eine neue Deutung der ,Schwachen, Kranken, Schlafenden' in 1 Kor 11,30, Filología Neotestamentaria 9 (1996) 3-20.
William J. Martin, "1 Corinthians 11:2-16: An Interpretation,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.231-241.
Francis Watson,
The Authority of a Voice: A Theological Reading of 1 Cor 11.2-16.
New Test. Stud.46, pp. 520-546. Printed in the United Kingdom © Cambridge University Press
Sebastian Schneider, Glaubensmängel in Korinth. Eine neue Deutung der ,Schwachen, Kranken, Schlafenden' in 1 Kor 11,30, Filología Neotestamentaria 9 (1996) 3-20.
J.D.H. Amador, Re-reading 2 Corinthians: A Rhetorical Approach
. Published as "Re-reading 2nd Corinthians: A Rhetorical Approach," The Rhetorical Interpretation of Scripture: Essays from the 2000 Lund Conference (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, forthcoming).
J.D.H. Amador, Revisiting 2 Corinthians: Rhetoric and the Case for Unity.
Published as "Revisiting 2nd Corinthians: Rhetoric and the Case for Unity," New Testament Studies 46 (2000), 1-21.
Gerhard Dautzenberg, Überlegungen zur Exegese und Theologie von 2 Kor 4,1-6
, from Biblica 82 (2001) 325-344.
Jan Lambrecht, The Fool’s Speech and Its Context: Paul’s Particular Way of Arguing in 2 Cor 10–13
, from Biblica 82 (2001) 305-324.
B.J. Oropeza, Laying to Rest the Midrash: Paul's Message on Meat Sacrificed to Idols in Light of the Deuteronomic Tradition
from Biblica 79 (1998) 57-68.
Dr. David Instone-Brewer, "1 Corinthians 7 in Light of the Greco-Roman Marriage and Divorce Papyri"
Dr David Instone-Brewer, "1 Corinthians 7 in the light of the Jewish Greek and Aramaic Marriage and Divorce Papyri"
Richard B. Hays, Ecclesiology And Ethics in 1 Corinthians.
From Ex Auditu.
Elizabeth R. Gebhard,The Evolution of a Pan-Hellenic Sanctuary: From Archaeology towards History at Isthmia.
This article originally appeared in Greek Sanctuaries, New Approaches (1993, pp.154-177), and is made available electronically with the permission of the editors.
Elizabeth R. Gebhard,The Isthmian Games and the Sanctuary of Poseidon in the Early Empire.
This article originally appeared in:Journal of Roman Archaeology. Supplemental Series Number 8.
Conflict and Community in the Corinthian Church.
Contains also a lot of valuble other links about Corinth.
J. H. Neyrey, Witchcraft Accusations in 2 Cor 10-13: Paul in Social Science perspective.
Galatians
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for Galatians
Exegetical studies
Irene Pabst, The interpretation of the Sarah-Hagar-stories in rabbinic and patristic literature.
Sarah and Hagar as female representations of identity and difference. Lectio difficilior 1/2003.
Ramsay, William M.,A Historical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians (1899)
Nanos, Mark, The Inter- and Intra-Jewish Political Contexts of Paul and the Galatians . Paper for "Paul and Politics of Israel" at Nov. SBL Meeting, Orlando, 1998.
Nanos, mark D., The Local Contexts of the Galatians: Toward resolving A Catch 22. Published on the web 6/23/03
Nanos, Mark, The Social Context and Message of Galatians in View of Paul's Evil Eye Warning
Torrey Seland, "Saul of Tarsus and Early Zealotism. Reading Gal 1,13-14 in Light of Philo's Writings," Biblica 83 (2002) 449-471.
Beale, G.K., Peace and Mercy Upon the Israel of God: The Old Testament Background of Galatians 6,16b.
Biblica 80 (1999) 204-223.
J. Lambrecht, The Right Things You Want to Do A Note on Galatians 5,17d.
from Biblica 79 (1998) 515-524.
Romans
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for Paul's Letter to the Romans
Zeba Crook,
Exegetical studies
Leon Morris, "The Theme of Romans,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.249-263.
William B. Barcley, Reading Romans Missiologically.
Published in Global Missiology, Featured Articles, Oct. 2003, www.globalmissiology.net
Abraham in Romans 4
; This article was originally published in New Testament Studies 41 (1995): 71-88.
Aletti, Jean-NoëlRomains 4 et Genèse 17. Quelle énigme et quelle solution? Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 305-325.
Romano Penna, "La questione della dispositio rhetorica nella lettera di Paolo ai Romani: confronto con la lettera 7 di Platone e la lettera 95 di Seneca," Biblica 84(2003) 61-88.
Christian Grappe, "Qui me délivrera de ce corps de mort? L'Esprit de vie! Romains 7,24 et 8,2 comme éléments de typologie adamique," , Biblica 83(2002) 472-492.
Jan Lambrecht, The Line of Thought in Romans 7,15-20, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 393-398.
Romanello, Stefano, Rom 7,7-25 and the Impotence of the Law. A Fresh Look at a Much-Debated Topic Using Literary-Rhetorical Analysis. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 510-530.
Captivity letters
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for Ephesians
Peter Kirby's Online sources for Philippians
Peter Kirby's Online sources for Colossians
Bo Reicke, "Caesarea, Rome, and the Captivity Epistles,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.277-286.
Wayne Grudem, "The Meaning Of kefalh ("Head"): An Evaluation Of New Evidence, Real And Alleged,"
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 44:1 (March 2001) p. 25-65.
Exegetical studies
Jean-Noël Aletti, Les difficultés ecclésiologiques de la lettre aux Éphésiens. De quelques suggestions, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 457-474.
Grindheim, Sigurd, What the OT Prophets Did Not Know: The Mystery of the Church in Eph 3,2-13. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 531-553.
Peter A. Gosnell, Networks and exchanges: Ephesians 4:7-16 and the community function of teachers, published in Biblical Theology Bulletin 2000.
Harland, Philip, Honours and Worship: Emperors, Imperial Cults and Associations at Ephesus (first to third centuries c.e.). Originally published in Studies in Religion / Sciences religieuses 25 (1996) 319-34.
Fee, Gordon D., The Cultural Context of Ephesians 5:18-6:9
Larry J. Kreitzer, The Plutonium of Hierapolis and the Descent of Christ into the 'Lowermost Parts of the Earth' (Ephesians 4,9),
from Biblica 79 (1998) 381-393.
C. F. D. Moule, "Further Reflections on Philippians 2:5-11,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.265-276.
David Seeley, The Background of the Philippians Hymn.
Brian Capper, 'Paul's Dispute with Philippi. Understanding the Argument of Philippians 1–2 from Paul's Thanks in 4.1–20,' in Theologische Zeitschrift 49 (1993) 193-214.
Campbell, Barth L., Colossians 2:6-15 as a Thesis: A Rhetorical-Critical Study. From the Journal for the Study of Rhetorical Criticism of the New Testament.
John Paul Heil, The Chiastic Structure and Meaning of Paul’s Letter to Philemon
, from Biblica 82 (2001) 178-206.
Pastoral Letters
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 1 Timothy
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 2 Timothy
Peter Kirby's Online sources for Titus
Exegetical studies
Ann L. Bowman, Women in Ministry: An Exegetical Study of 1 Timothy 2:11-15. This article has been reprinted with permission from Dallas Theological Seminary and is taken from the April-June issue of Bibliotheca Sacra.
Robert H. Gundry, "The Form, Meaning and Background of the Hymn Quoted in 1 Timothy 3:16,"
W. Ward Gasque & Ralph P. Martin, eds., Apostolic History and the Gospel. Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F.F. Bruce. Exeter: The Paternoster Press, 1970. pp.203-222.
Articles related to Hebrews
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for Hebrews
Trobisch, David.,Die Verfasserschaft des Hebräerbriefes und die Wiederentdeckung eines echten Paulustextes".
Exegetical Studies
Art Hurtado, Are The Persons Described in Hebrews 6:4-6 Christians?
D.W. Rooke, Jesus as Royal Priest: Reflections on the Interpretation of the Melchizedek Tradition in Heb 7
. from Biblica 81 (2000) 81-94.
"'Without Beginning of Days or End of Life' (Hebrews 7:3): Topos for a True Deity."
Catholic Biblical Quarterly 53 (1991):439-55.
Terry A. Larm, Hebrews 10:1-18: Jesus Christ, the Final Sacrifice
Theological Gathering, Winter 1997.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "Archegos in the Salvation History of the Epistle to the Hebrews," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 29, No. 1 (March, 1986), pp. 47-54.
Articles related to James.
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for James
Exegetical Studies
Vernon K. Robbins, Making Christian Culture in the Epistle of James
. Orig. printed in Scriptura 59 (1996), pp. 341-351.©
Vernon K. Robbins, "A Comparison of Mishnah Gittin 1:1-2:2 and James 2:1-13 from a Perspective of Greco-Roman Rhetorical Elaboration."In Jack N. Lightstone, Mishnah and the Social Formation of the Early Rabbinic Guild: A Socio-Rhetorical Approach. Studies in Christianity and Judaism 11. Waterloo: Wilfred Laurier University Press for the Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion, 2002: 201-216.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "James the Relative of Jesus and the Expectation of an Eschatological Priest," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 25, No. 3 (September, 1982), pp. 323-331.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "Non-Canonical References to James, the Relative of Jesus," invited paper read at National Meeting of Society of Biblical Literature. New York, NY, 1979.
J. Julius Scott, Jr. "Commas and the Christology of the Epistle of James," read at Evangelical Theological Society, National Meeting, Danvers, MA (1999).
Articles related to 1-2 Peter
Introductory
OnLine resources for 1 Peter.
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 2 Peter
Resources to 1 Peter
Epistles attributed to Peter
Webpage by Felix Just.
The Rev. E.M.B. Green,2 Peter Reconsidered.
The Tyndale New Testament Lecture, 1960.
Exegetical Studies
Scot Snyder, Participles and Imperatives in 1 Peter: A Re-Examination In The Light Of Recent Scholarly Trends, published in Filología Neotestamentaria 8 (1995) 187-198.
Mirslav Volf, Soft Difference.Theological Reflections on the Relation Between Church and Culture in 1 Peter
. From Ex Auditu.
Karen H. Jobes, Got Milk? Septuagint Psalm 33 and the Interpretation of 1 Peter 2:1-3. from WTJ 63 (2002) 1-14.
Steve Moyise, 'Isaiah in 1 Peter', from: Steve Moyise & Maarten Menken (eds),Isaiah in the New Testament (T&T Clark 2005).
Greg Herrick, The Apostle Peter on Civil Obedience: An Exegesis of 1 Peter 2:13-17
Ernst R. Wendland, “Stand Fast in the True Grace of God! A Study of 1 Peter"
Terrance Callan, The Christology of the Second Letter of Peter
, from Biblica 82 (2001) 253-263.
Callan, Terrance, The Style of the Second Letter of Peter. Biblica 84 (2003) 202-224.
Articles etc related to the Letters of John.
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 1 John
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 2 John
Peter Kirby's Online sources for 3 John
Hansjörg Schmimd, How to Read the First Epistle of John Non-Polemically, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 24-41.
Exegetical Studies
Hall Harris, Ph.D. The Letter of 1 John
Articles etc related to the Letter of Jude.
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for the letter of Jude
Exegetical studies
Jeffrey T. Reed and Ruth A. Reese, Verbal Aspect, Discourse Prominence, and the Letter of Jude. , Filología Neotestamentaria 9 (1996) 181-199 .
Articles etc related to the Book of Revelation.
Introductory
Peter Kirby's Online sources for the Apocalypse of John
Art, Images, and Materials related to the Book of Revelation,
compiled by Felix Just.
Links to Revelation, Apocalyptic and Millennial Websites and Materials,
copiled by Felix Just.
R. H. Charles, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Revelation of St. John
Slater, Thomas B. Dating the Apocalypse to John. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 252-258.
Studies
Gonzalo Rojas-Flores, The Book of Revelation and the First Years of Nero’s Reign, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 375-392.
Daniel Ayuch, La instauración del Trono en siete septenarios. La macronarrativa y su estructura en el Apocalipsis de Juan, published in Biblica 85 (2004) 255-263.
This article investigates the function of number seven as a narrative device and as the main structural pattern in the macronarrative of the Book of Revelation. Considering the final instauration of the Holy Throne in heaven and on earth as the plot of the story, the structuring of the book in septenaries leads the reader through a gradual fulfillment of the New Creation and to the ultimate destruction of evil.
Mark R. Bredin, Hate never dispelled hate: no place for the pharmakos, published in Biblical Theology Bulletin 2004.
Jon Paulien, Dreading the The Whirlwind: Intertextuality and the Use of the Old Testament in Revelation. Published in Andrews University Seminary Studies 39 (1, 2001): 5-22. Responses by G. K. Beale and Steven Moyise on pages 23-40 of the same issue.
Steve Moyise, The Psalms in the Book of Revelation
Steve Moyise, The Language Of The Psalms In Te Book Of Revelation
from Neotestamentica 2003:68-83.
S.Moyise, "Intertextuality and the Use of Scripture in the Book of Revelation",
from Scriptura 84, 2003:391-401
The Book of Revelation and Apocalyptic Literature
Zimmermann, Ruben, Nuptial Imagery in the Revelation of John. Published in Biblica 84 (2003) 153-183.
The Cities of Revelation.
some pictures and info about the seven churches/cities of Revelation 2-3.
Charles A. Gieschen, Baptismal Praxis in the Book of Revelation
J. Lambrecht,The Opening of the Seals (Rev 6,1–8,6)
from Biblica 79 (1998) 198-221.
David L. Barr, Using Plot to Discern Structure in John's Apocalypse
David L. Barr, Towards an Ethical Reading of The Apocalypse: Reflections on John's Use of Power,Violence, and Misogyny
David L. Barr,
Transforming the Imagination. John’s Apocalypse as Story
David L. Barr,
Who Says? Who Hears? The Narrative Rhetoric of John's Apocalypse
Floyd O. Parker, Jr.,‘Our Lord and God’ in Rev 4,11: Evidence for the Late Date of Revelation?
, from Biblica 82 (2001) 207-231.
Harland, Philip, Honouring the Emperor or Assailing the Beast: Participation in Civic Life among Associations (Jewish, Christian and Other) in Asia Minor and the Apocalypse of John. Originally published in Journal for the Study of the New Testament 77 (2000) 99-121.
K.C. Hanson, Blood and Purity in Leviticus and Revelation.
Published in Listening: Journal of Religion and Culture 28 (1993):215-30 (© 1993 Reprinted here by permission of the publisher).
Marko Jauhiainen, "The Measuring of the Sanctuary Reconsidered (Rev 11,1-2)", Vol. 83(2002) 507-526.
Bibliographies
Searchable Bibliographic Databases
Theologische Literaturdokumentation der Universität Innsbruck.
A very useful source.
Star - WWW Gateway at the University of Innsbruck, Austria
Contains Theology Literature Database, and Austrian Thesis Database. Alas, access is restricted to those having *.ac.*, *.edu and *.gv.at. in their domain server name (Thesis Database not even open to those having *.edu).
University Microfilm International, Dissertation Abstracts
. Web access to University Microfilm International's database of dissertations. Provides search engine for searching among dissertations on Religion from 1980 to present.
Bibliographies on the Web
General
Thomas Knittel, Arbeitshilfen für das Studium der Pseudepigraphen
Meir Bar-Ilan, Bibliography of Children in Antiquity
Meir Bar-Ilan
has also some bibliographies out in Hebrew and English on Jewish Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, on Qumran, on The Copper Scroll (3Q15), on Sect and Sectarianism in the Second Commonwealth, on Jewish Liturgy, on Hebrew Names, on Jewish Women in Antiquity, and on Literacy in Antiquity. They are all accessible from this page.
Diotima; Materials for the Study of Women & Gender in the Ancient World.
Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant, Women's Life in Greece and Rome
Publications of John H. Elliott(1958–present)
Publications of Vernon K. Robbins
Graeco-Roman World
An Initial Bibliography of the Ancient Novel, related Genres and Interesting Secondary Literature.
K.C. Hanson, Ritual and Ceremony in the Ancient Mediterranean and Near East: A Select Classified Bibliography (1970–1996)
K.C. Hanson, Greco-Roman Studies and the Social-Scientific Study of the Bible: A Classified Periodical Bibliography (1970—1994)
K.C. Hanson, Ritual and Ceremony in the Graeco-Roman World: A Select Classified Bibliography (1970–1996)
Women in the Ancient Near East: A Select Bibliography of Recent Sources in the Oriental Institute Research Archives. Compiled by Terry G. Wilfong.
Rhetoric Bibliography,
prepared by James D. Hester.
Judaism
The Judaica Bibliography.
Prepared by: Mark A. Christian, at Divinity Library, Vanderbilt University.
Judaica Libraries and Archives on the Web
Early Judaism.
from Early Judaism and Its Modern Interpreters (Atlanta/Philadelphia: Scholars/Fortress Press, 1986), pp. 31-116 (42 kb).
Tzvee Zahavy, Bibliography [from Tzvee Zahavy, Studies in Jewish Prayer, Lanham, MD, 1990]
New Testament
General Works on the New Testament
Compiled by Fr. William Harmless, S.J. With special emphasis for books in the collection of Byrne Library, Spring Hill College
New Testament Bibliography .
Revised and Updated by Revelation E. Velunta,NT Bibliographer, Divinity Library, Vanderbilt University.
Bibliography to the Gospels
. Compiled by Fr. William Harmless, S.J. With special emphasis for books in the collection of Byrne Library, Spring Hill College
Felix Just, Johannine Works on the Web;
Johannine Bibliography
Paul and the New Testament Letters
Compiled by Fr. William Harmless, S.J. With special emphasis for books in the collection of Byrne Library, Spring Hill College
K.C. Hanson, Greco-Roman Studies and the Social-Scientific Study of the Bible: A Classified Periodical Bibliography (1970—1994)
Published in FORUM 9.1-2 (1994[96]):63-119. (© 1996 Reprinted here by permission of the publisher)
K. C. Hanson, The Bibliography of Bruce J. Malina, 1967-1996
Revelation resources;
Resources for the study of the Book of Revelation.
This page was last updated August 5. 2008.
'Irenaeus Philopolis', A True Christian Subject under a Heathen Prince, or Tertullian's Plea for Allegiance (1643) [1], 6 pp.
A
TRUE CHRISTIAN
SVBIECT
Vnder an Heathen PRINCE:
OR
TERTVLLIANS Plea for Allegiance, argued in
time of the sixth Persecution, under the Emperour
SEVERVS. Ann. Dom. 204.
With a briefe Application, to the Citizens of
LONDON,
Written by a MEMBER of the
HOUSE of
COMMONS.
------------------------------------------------------
OXFORD,
Printed by Henry Hall. An. Dom. 1643
(1)
A TRVE CHRISTIAN
Subiect under a Heathen Prince;
or TERTVLLIANS plea for Allegiance, argued
in time of the sixth Persecution under the Emperor
SEVERVS. Ann. Dom. 204.
Apol.
ca. 30 P
recantes su-
mus semper
pro omnibus
Imperatori-
bus, vitam illis prolixam,
Imperium securum, domum
tutam, exercitus fortes, Se-
natum fidelem, populum pro-
bum, orbem quietum, quae-
cunque hominis & Caesa-
ris tota sunt. Cap. 33.
Imperatorem Dominus no-
ster elegit: ut merito dixe-
rim, noster est magis Cae-
sar, ut á Deo nostro
constitutusm itaque ut meo
plus illi operor in salutem.
Cap. 36. Iidem sumus Im-
peratoribus, cui & vicinis
nostris; malè enim velle,
malé facere, malé dice-
re, malè cogita e de quo-
quam ex aequo vetamur.
A
VV
e always pray
for all Empe-
ors that they
may enjoy a long Life,
secure Empire, safe mansi-
on, strong Armies, faithfull
Counsell, good Subjects
quiet times, and whatsoe-
ver may be his wish as a
man, and as a Caesar: it is
our Lord who hath chosen
the Emperour: and I may
justly say, Caesar is more
ours then yours, as being
constituted by our God: and
therefore I doe more la-
bour for his safety, he be-
ing my King. We are the
same to the Emperours,
as we are to our own neigh-
bours, for wee are equally
forbidden to wish ill, do ill,
speak ill, think ill of any ma.
Quodcunque
(2)
Quodcunque non licet in
imperatorem, id nec in
quenquam:quod in nemi-
nem, eo forsitan magis
nec in ipsum qui per De
um tantus est. Hester-
ni sumus, & vestra om-
nia implevimus, Vrbes,
Insulas, Castella, Munici-
pia, Conciliabula, Castra
ipsa, Tribus, Decurias, pa-
latium, Senatum, Forum,
sola vobis relinquimus
Templa. Cui bello non ido-
nei, non prompti fuissimus,
etiam impares copijs, qui-
tam libenter trucidamur?
Si non apud istam disci-
plinam magis occidi lice-
ret, quàm eccidere. Potui
mus & inermes, ne Re
belles, sed tantummodo
discordes solius divertii
invidia adversus vos di-
micasse. Si enim tanta
vis hominum in aliquem
orbis remoti sinum abru-
pissemus a vobis, suffidis-
set utique Dominationem
vestram tot qualiumcun.
que amissio civium, imò Whatsoever is not lawfull a-
gainst the Emperour, is unlaw-
full toward any other: what
may be done unto no man,
so much the rather may
not be done unto him, who
through God is so great a man,
We are but of yesterday, yet
have wee filled all places a-
mong you, Cities, Islands,
Citadels, Boroughs, Assem-
blies, your very Campe, your
Tribes of the common peo-
ple, Decuries of the Iudges,
the Palace, the Senate, the Iu-
dicatories, we onely leave to
you your Temples. For what
Warr are not wee fit and
ready, though wee were
fewer in number. who so
willingly are put to death? But
that wee are taught that it is
more lawfull to be slaine then
to kill. Wee ( even without
Armes, and without Rebel-
ling) if wee differed from you
in the ill will of a Division on-
ly, could fight enough against
you. For if we (so great aforce)
should breake from you into
any remote corner of the
world, so great a losse of Citi-
zens (such as wee are, whatso-
etiam
(3)
etiam & destitutione
punisset. Procul dubio
expavissetis ad solitudi-
nem vestram, ad silenti-
um rerum, & stuporem
quemda quasi mortuae
urbis quaesissetis quibus
in ea imperassetis. Plures
hostes quám cives reman-
sissent. Nunc enum pau-
ciores hostes habetis prae
multitudine Christiano-
rum penè omnium civi-
um, penè omnes cives
Christianos habendo. ever you thinke of us) would
undermine your Empire: I, and
punish you enough even with
a meer desertion. Without all
doubt, you would have started
at your owne solitude, at the
dumbnesse of things, and in a
certaine amazement as of a
dead City, you would have en-
quired for people over whom
to reigne. You would have
found more enemies, than Ci-
tizens. For, even now you have
the fewer enemies, by reason
of the multitude of Christian
Citizens, having almost all
Citizens Christian among you.
--------------------------------------------------------
Application to the Citizens of fa-
mous LONDON.
Thus Tertullian, from the very Principles of our
Christian religion, doth plead the harmlesse innocency,
the willing obedience, and due subjection of primitive
Christians, even to irreligious heathen, & to persecuting
Kinges. Is Religion changed? or have our Princes leste
duty owing unto them then the Heathen had? Is Buchan-
an wise, & Tertullian a foole; Is Machiavell true, and Ter
tullian false? Are Iunius Brutus, Burrowes, Parker, Pryn,---
good subjects.and was Tertullian a Traytor? will you
value
(4)
value seditious Pamplets, and despise the ancient when
they speake Orthodoxe? Are we lesse bound to the sa-
cred Text then our Fathers were? Is our Charter of Li-
berties more than God gave to his first Saintes? Have
we leave to be lesse Christian, then they were? Is Charles a
Persecutor, or was Severus a Pious Prince? It is a shame
to plead so plaine a cause, Noe salve can cure a willfull
distrust, Three things there are, which once (deepely)
infected, are never fully cured: Heresy, Lunacy, and Iea-
lousy, But God confound their Purposes, who not being
doubtfull in themselves, do yet create and nurse up the
Iealousies of others, wherewith to work their owne
darke ends. Miserable are the people who Resolve to see
onely with their eares. Demonstration will not con-
vince them. Their eare is tickled that here is an Army
of Papists, when yet we go to the Protestant Church,
and there performe all the opposites to papall supersti-
tion. Awake, and see how your soules are sotted, by
giveing them up to these delusions. Ease your selves and
us by owning the goodnesse of our King, who glady
would owne your love in a due subjection. Spare your
selves, your wives, your fortunes, and your children. All
are now ready to be exposed for that which may be
given you without a stroke; Nay which is offered to
you, and is onely hindered by the wicked mis interpre-
tation of a few false men about you. Do not say you de-
sire peace, but give it to us and to your selves by leaving
impeached Traytors to stand or fall alone. What is Pym
what are Hollis, Hampden, Haselrig, and Strode, what Kim-
bolton, and a few men more that they may not undergoe
the tryall of our Lawes? Aske any one of them alone,
and if hee have not innocency enough to offer himselfe
to
(5)
to the tryall, yet he will have shame enough to say, hea
is not affraid to be tryed: Hee hath not brasse enough to
say, I will not be tryed by the Law of the Land. whether
these men (and others) be guilty or innocent, will you
forever undoe this Kingdome, rather then let us know
whether they be innocent or no? what have they deser-
ved that you and thousands more must feele the sword,
for them that were the cause to un-sheath it? who ever
did tread downe all that is deare unto us so, as they have
done? who ever laboured to raise us up into our just li-
berties, as the King hath done? The King doth plead
our Lawes for us, and they pay him againe with Votes.
The King doth owne our true Religion, whilst a faction
among you, doth cherish and multiply Schismes with
good allowance. His majesty doth argue the Subiects
Liberty, whilst wee are by fellow Subjects rifled and
imprisone. Hee thought to have enjoyed his owne
property in Hull, and was denyed; but Prophecied then
that these men next would invade your property also,
as now is done. Looke to the twentieth part, which is
but a setting dogge to shew where the covey of nineteen
are, what hopes have you of prevailing in this warre so
full of doubts, changes, necessities, feares, distrusts; and
so many among you (even of your Leaders) truer to the
King, then you wish or are aware of? I speake the free-
dome of a friend, Do not put us to winne the King his
right againe with our swords: perhaps the concequen-
ces may reach farther then we wish, or you do yet feare.
And what would you do, if you should ince prevaile?
how often must you fight again and and again: how many
victories upon victories must you get, and yet fall short
againe?
againe? for our Gratious King, and our deare black Prince
shall still revive with new strength to subdue you. God
cannot leave the King in this the justest waare (on his
side) that ever Christian drew a sword in. Give up those
few traytor citizens among you. Lay down your armes,
and give the labd no farther cause to wish our best City
a heape of stones.
Your friend, more than
they who Vote for Warre,
IRENAEVS PHIL OPOLIS.
FINIS
Selucia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the city, see Seleucia
Selucia is a fictional character in the Wheel of Time series by Robert Jordan. Selucia was given to the Empress of Seanchan as a baby, and spent the first twenty-five years of her life training for the job of nursemaid and guardian to the Empress' child, who turned out to be Tuon. She also secretly trained in fighting and defence, to be a bodyguard that no one knew about and no one would suspect. She is described as bosomy and creamy-cheeked, with blonde hair, and of average height.
For the first sixteen years of Tuon's life, Selucia acted as a guardian. When Tuon reached adulthood, Selucia was presented with two traditional gifts - a sack of gold for every time she'd had to punish Tuon, and her choice of her next placement. It isn't clarified if this means another service post, or if Selucia could theoretically have been freed and even given high status. In any case she chose to stay with Tuon, acting as her chief maid. Tuon was delighted, and made Selucia her so'jhin.
As a mark of her status Selucia has the left side of her head shaved, and her remaining hair twisted into a braid. She has a keen sense of propriety and is horrified by the thought of overstepping her station. But as so'jhin to the Daughter of the Nine Moons, Selucia is superior in status to the Low Blood, and possibly equal to the High Blood. She is no common da'covale. Selucia is wholeheartedly devoted to Tuon, is often found with her Mistress, at least in public, and when Tuon is kidnapped from the Tarasin Palace, Selucia interferes and manages to accompany her.
When Mat tries to woo Tuon, he plays an elaborate game by bringing beautiful silk flowers to Selucia, who is startled and suspicious. When they are attacked by darkfriends in Maderin Selucia defends Tuon, revealing her second, secret, task to Thom, who cryptically promises not to tell anyone.
The relationship between Selucia and Tuon is close, but they are still mistress and servant. Tuon doesn't share everything with Selucia, nor does Selucia seem to expect her to. In part this may be to protect Selucia - Tuon deliberately doesn't tell her about Lydia's foretelling because she suspects Selucia would take her back to Ebou Dar by force. Selucia would do anything to protect her mistress, even if it ended in her certain execution.
Being devoted to Tuon doesn't mean she always agrees with her; when Tuon publicly asks Mat to kiss her, Selucia is furious, to the point where she lets it show on her face. We don't know if her feelings change at all after the marriage ceremony is completed.
Book of 1 Timothy
Book of 1 Timothy
Author: The Book of 1 Timothy was written by the Apostle Paul (1 Timothy 1:1).
Date of Writing: The Book of 1 Timothy was written between 62-66 A.D.
Purpose of Writing: Paul wrote to Timothy to encourage him in his responsibility for overseeing the work of the Ephesian church and possibly the other churches in the province of Asia (1 Timothy 1:3). This letter lays the foundation for ordaining elders (1 Timothy 3:1-7), and provides guidance for ordaining people into offices of the church (1 Timothy 3:8-13). In essence, 1 Timothy is a leadership manual for church organization and administration.
Key Verses: 1 Timothy 2:5, "For there is one God and one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus."
1 Timothy 2:12, "I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent."
1 Timothy 3:1-2, "Here is a trustworthy saying: If anyone sets his heart on being an overseer, he desires a noble task. Now the overseer must be above reproach, the husband of but one wife, temperate, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach, not given to drunkenness, not violent but gentle, not quarrelsome, not a lover of money."
1 Timothy 4:9-10, "This is a trustworthy saying that deserves full acceptance and for this we labor and strive), that we have put our hope in the living God, who is the Savior of all men, and especially of those who believe."
1 Timothy 6:12, "Fight the good fight of the faith. Take hold of the eternal life to which you were called when you made your good confession in the presence of many witnesses."
Brief Summary: This is the first letter Paul wrote to Timothy, a young pastor who had been a help of Paul in his work. Timothy was a Greek. His mother was a Jewess and his father was Greek. Paul was more than just a mentor and leader to Timothy, he was like a father to him and Timothy was like a son to Paul (1 Timothy 1:2). Paul begins the letter by urging Timothy to be on the guard for false teachers and false doctrine. However, much of the letter deals with pastoral conduct. Paul instructs Timothy in worship (1 Timothy 2) and developing mature leaders for the Church (1 Timothy 3). Most of the letter deals with pastoral conduct and that of their families as well. All throughout the letter, Paul encourages Timothy to stand firm, to persevere, and to remain true to his calling.
Practical Application: Jesus Christ is present by Paul as the mediator between God and man (1 Timothy 2:5), and is the Savior to all who believe in Him. He is Lord of the Church, and Timothy serves Him by pasturing His Church. Thus, we find the main application of Paul’s first letter to his “son in the faith.” Paul instructs Timothy on matters of Church doctrine, Church leadership, and Church administration. We can use those same instructions in governing our local assembly today. Likewise, the work and ministry of a pastor, the qualifications for an elder, and the qualifications of a deacon are just as important and pertinent today as they were in Timothy’s day. Paul’s first letter to Timothy amounts to an instruction book on leading, administrating and pasturing the local church. The instructions laid out in this letter apply to any leader of prospective leader of Christ’s church are laid out in a clear, concise manner and are equally relevant today, tomorrow or any day, as they were in Paul’s day.
For those not called into a “leadership” role in their church, the book is still for you. Every follower must contend for the faith. Every follower must stand firm and persevere. Finally, every follower of Christ must remain true to our Savior and that which we have been called to do: “Go out and make disciples of all nations” (Matthew 28:19).
Timothy worked with Paul at
Corinth and elsewhere
Paul met Timothy in the town of Lystra in Asia Minor on his second missionary journey. Timothy, already a Christian, was the son of a Greek father and a Jewish mother. Paul circumcised Timothy so that he might enter the company of Jewish-Christians without offense. Two of the letters ascribed to Paul are addressed to Timothy.
Acts 16:1-3 - Joins Paul Timothy was a disciple and friend of the Apostle Paul. A disciple means a learner, a scholar. When Timothy was a young man, he heard the Apostle preach, and the Holy Spirit blessed what was preached to the good of his soul. From that time he loved to be with so wise and kind a teacher. Sometimes they went on long missionary journeys together, to make known the way in which sinners can be saved, through faith in our Lord Jesus Christ. There are two epistles, or letters, in the New Testament which were written by the Apostle to Timothy. If you read these letters, you will see what good advice the Apostle Paul gave to Timothy, and how much he loved him.
We place Timothy among the children of the Bible, because it is said of him, "From a child thou hast known the Holy Scriptures, which are able to make thee wise unto salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus" (2 Timothy 3:15). He had a grandmother named Lois, and a pious mother named Eunice. When very young, they taught him from the Word of God. Happy Timothy, to stand by the side of a dear mother, and hear from her lips the great things God had done for His people in every age!
Jewish children were taught by their parents at home, and were often taken by them to the temple to see the sacrifices offered. No doubt young Timothy had been told by his pious mother how God saved Noah in the ark, and Daniel in the den of lions; how David slew the giant Goliath with a sling and stone, and how Elijah was fed by ravens in a desert. These, and a hundred other beautiful stories, she told him from the sacred Book. Then, too, she taught him that the Passover was kept because the angel of God passed over the Hebrews, and slew the Egyptians; and that the lamb was offered every day in the temple as an atonement for sin. She must also have told him of the great things God had done for their nation, and that He had promised to send them a Saviour. All this instruction was very useful to Timothy when he grew up and became a preacher of the Gospel. He must often have praised God for giving him such a pious family and friends to care for him and teach him.
Timothy did not have a complete Bible, as we have, nor was his book like what we use. It was probably made of long sheets of parchment, and was rolled upon a short stick. It was not printed, for printing was not then invented, but written with a kind of steel pen. It was too large to put into a pocket and must have cost a large sum of money. A poor child in those days did not have a copy of the Scriptures which he could call his own. He could not say, "This is my own Bible."
As Timothy knew the Holy Scriptures from an early age, so it is important for young children today to know the same Holy Scriptures that they might learn of God and His way of salvation through faith in His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ. The Holy Bible is God's inspired Word which He has preseved for us and we need to know it if we are to live lives pleasing to God.
As we conclude this little book of the children of the Bible, let us observe these things about the Bible—
1. It should be read. The word Bible means "book," and Scriptures means "writings." It is the best of all books and all writings; for it is the very Word and will of God. It speaks only truth, and is full of the greatest truths. It has done more good in the world than all other books. Everyone has to do with what the Bible makes known. It teaches about God and man, and this world and the world to come. Good men in all ages have loved it.
2. The Bible should be read by children. It is not for aged persons alone. We have seen that there is much in this Holy Book about the young, and for the young; it was put there on purpose to teach them.
It is true there are some things in the Bible hard to be understood. Many years ago a pious man said, "It is like a river: so deep in the middle that an elephant may swim in it, but along the shore a lamb may wade, and not be drowned." You should be like the lamb. There are truths in the Scriptures which the wisest cannot fully understand; but if we have sincere and prayerful hearts, we may learn all that we need to know. If a child seeks to learn from the Bible, and asks God for His blessing, he will become wise, good, and happy.
3. The Bible can make children "wise unto salvation" through faith in Christ Jesus. It teaches us many things; but its great end is to lead to the salvation of the soul. It tells us of the love of a Saviour, of what He is, what He has done, and what He has promised to do for those who believe in Him. Jesus says that we should "search the Scriptures," for they testify of Him. You should search with as much zeal as men seek for jewels in a mine. It contains "the pearl of great price."
You should read the Bible often, and read it daily. A wise man once said, "Get a little at a time, and as often as you can, and you will soon know a great deal." It is like a gold mine, where a man may dig every day of his life, and find much gold, and yet there will be plenty left for others.
You should also pray to God to teach you. David was a great and pious man, and he prayed thus: "Open Thou mine eyes, that I may behold wondrous things out of Thy law." If David so prayed, surely you should ask God to help you.
Happy will you be if you should be like a little boy who learned a verse every day, and when he grew up to be a man, that which he had learned in youth was blessed in leading him to love and serve the Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ.TYRANUS
The apostle Paul had just been run out of town ... again! It was not that Paul was such a bad man; it was that bad men couldn't tolerate his teaching. He came bearing the gift of good news; a message of liberation to captives. He sought to free men from the shackles of their bondage to law, and bring them into the joys of God's marvelous grace. The captives drank deeply of this message, and rejoiced. Their captors, however, were filled with a jealousy that quickly turned to a murderous rage.
The city from which Paul was forced to leave under cover of darkness (Acts 17:10) was Thessalonica. Paul, as was his custom, had simply gone to the synagogue upon his arrival, and "for three Sabbaths reasoned with them from the Scriptures, explaining and giving evidence that the Christ had to suffer and rise again from the dead, and saying, 'This Jesus whom I am proclaiming to you is the Christ'" (Acts 17:1-3). Paul was not just spouting opinions and personal theological preferences; he was not out to gather a following. Paul was declaring God's Truth, and he employed reasoning and an appeal to Scripture. This appeal touched the hearts of some of the Jews who heard him, and they began to associate with Paul and Silas, "along with a great multitude of the God-fearing Greeks and a number of the leading women" (vs. 4). Needless to say, this success did not endear Paul to the leaders of the Jews. "Becoming jealous, they took along some wicked men from the market place, formed a mob, and set the city in an uproar" (vs. 5).
Godless men, when incapable of refuting the message, will always attack the messenger, and they will invariably resort to satanic strategies to achieve their goal of the utter destruction of those with whom they differ. Lies, slander, false accusations, crowd manipulation, intimidation, assault, and even murder are all considered justified in order to preserve their power and defend their dogma. This was illustrated very dramatically in the case of Stephen (Acts 6:9 - 7:60), a man who was murdered by those who "were unable to cope with the wisdom and the Spirit with which he was speaking" (Acts 6:10). Unwilling to listen to Truth, they stopped up their ears and rushed upon him with a fury (Acts 7:57). This same fury, by an equally hellish horde, was unleashed upon Paul and his associates that day in Thessalonica, and the mob was whipped into a frenzy by their many outlandish accusations (vs. 8). Thus ... again ... Paul was forced to slip away by night to avoid the fury of these rigid religious terrorists. It was not the first time, nor would it be the last, that Paul's proclamation of the gospel would elicit such a hateful response.
Thank God for the Bereans! About the time godly men begin to become discouraged in their teaching of Truth because of the Thessalonican Thugs of this world, God delivers them to an assembly of Benevolent Bereans. The difference between the two groups is as wide as the vast expanse of the universe! "Now these were more noble-minded than those in Thessalonica, for they received the word with great eagerness, examining the Scriptures daily, to see whether these things were so" (Acts 17:11). What a stark contrast! From stopped up ears to open minds; from jealousy to eagerness; from noisy malcontents to noble-mindedness; from reaction to reflection; from fury to faith! Paul has gone from thugs to thinkers. "Berea stands out as a bright oasis in the dreary landscape of persecution. When Paul and Silas enter the synagogue, they find themselves in a new atmosphere" (The Pulpit Commentary, vol. 18). In the Bereans, "we have the pleasure of seeing a Jewish community listen to the truth and examine it like rational beings" (J.W. McGarvey, Commentary on Acts, vol. 2, p. 115).
The city of Berea was just 50 miles west of Thessalonica, but the attitudes of the Jews in these two cities was infinitely farther apart than that. The word "Berea" signified "a place of many waters." Imagine how refreshed Paul must have been by the spirit of those in Berea, especially after experiencing the drought of faith evidenced by that rabble of rigid religionists in the city to the east. As one examines Luke's inspired characterization of these Bereans, one will quickly see that there are several traits which commend them to our view. Let's take special note of these godly qualities, and seek to spotlight how they differ dramatically from the demonic spirit evidenced by those disreputable dogmatists in Thessalonica.
They Were Noble-Minded
The biblical text informs us that the Jews of Berea were more noble-minded than those of their neighbor to the east. Luke uses a Greek comparative here which literally signifies "well-born, of more honorable breeding and upbringing." We might characterize such people as being more "classy." In other words, you would never find Bereans on the Jerry Springer Show. They were simply too well-bred. The riff-raff from Thessalonica, however, would be something else entirely! They would likely relish such a public brawl and dishonorable spectacle. All of which speaks volumes about a person's upbringing and character. This Greek term "is applied first to nobility of birth, but here Luke applies it to character" (H. Leo Boles, A Commentary on Acts of the Apostles, p. 274). The reality of life is: some people are thugs, others are thinkers. The Bereans were the latter. Notice how several different versions and translations render this phrase:
1. "Now the Bereans were of more noble character" --- New International Version.
2. "Now these were more high-minded" --- Hugo McCord's translation.
3. "The Jews here were more civil" --- New English Bible.
4. "The people of Berea were more open-minded" --- Holman Christian Standard Bible.
5. "The people in Berea were much nicer" --- Contemporary English Version.
The rendering of George Lamsa is somewhat amusing --- "For the Jews there were more liberal than the Jews who were in Thessalonica" (Lamsa's translation of the Aramaic of the Peshitta). I suppose we could say (tongue in cheek) that this proves (book, chapter and verse) that the "liberals" are just classier people than the "conservatives." Well, they do seem to be more "open-minded," and, let's face it, most of the feuding and fussing does tend to originate from the ultra-conservative side of the theological spectrum --- see: Reflections #8 -- From Whence Cometh Contentions? .... also the following article which deals with a reader's objections to Issue #8 -- Reflections #8a -- A Reasoned Response to a Reader's Rebuttal.
They Received The Word ....
There is a huge difference, character-wise, with respect to those who are willing to listen to what another has to say, and those who simply stop up their ears. The Bereans received the message of Paul, even though they may not at first have agreed with what he said. The Thessalonicans in our account, however, wanted nothing to do with what Paul had to say. They were much like the Jews who rose up against Stephen in the city of Jerusalem. They "rose up and argued with Stephen. And yet they were unable to cope with the wisdom and the Spirit with which he was speaking" (Acts 6:9-10). So, what did they do? Did they examine the Scriptures daily to determine Truth? Not even close!! "They covered their ears, and they rushed upon him with one impulse. And when they had driven him out of the city, they began stoning him" (Acts 7:57-58). The Bereans received the message of Paul; the Thessalonicans heard only enough to know they didn't like it, and refused to hear anything more. Instead, they attacked. Little wonder that the Bereans are regarded as "more noble-minded." The Berean Jews "were not the slaves of prejudice" (The Pulpit Commentary, vol. 18). "There is scarcely a greater sin than to stop our ears when God speaks, or to close our eyes to truth which He brings before us" (J.W. McGarvey, Commentary on Acts, vol. 2, p. 115).
What is your response when someone brings a teaching with which you may be unfamiliar or uncomfortable? Are you the type of person who immediately stops up your ears and refuses to even dialogue with this person? Do you go into attack mode and vilify him/her before others? Do you hound this person from place to place, seeking to do them great harm? If you are a thug you do. "But when the Jews of Thessalonica found out that the word of God had been proclaimed by Paul in Berea also, they came there likewise, agitating and stirring up the crowds" (Acts 17:13). However, if you are a thinker, you listen to what they have to say, and then you sit down with them in front of an open Bible and you engage in respectful, reflective dialogue to determine Truth. If they have the Truth, and it can be verified from God's Word, then they have done you a service. If you have the Truth, and their position can be refuted from God's Word, then you have done them a service, as well as those onlookers who also seek to know more perfectly God's will for their lives. You can't lose when disciples study the Word together; you can't win when disciples refuse to listen to one another or dialogue with one another, but rather assault one another. The only winner in the latter scenario is Satan. To a thug, dialogue is unthinkable; to a thinker, it is imperative.
* "Let us not forget how startling and how shocking was the story of a crucified Messiah" to those who were raised in Judaism (The Pulpit Commentary, vol. 18). This was radical teaching they were hearing from Paul. Yet, unlike the baser men of Thessalonica, these Jews were willing to give Paul a hearing. These same two attitudes were evidenced again in the city of Athens among those whom the Jews would have considered pagans -- "Now when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, some began to sneer, but others said, 'We shall hear you again concerning this'" (Acts 17:32). Two verses later we discover some became believers. Most likely these were not from among those who came to sneer, but from among those who were willing to hear! Sometimes even pagans can be more "noble-minded" than "God's chosen ones" (see: Romans 2:17ff).
The Jews of Thessalonica, much like many who profess to be Christians today, were religiously bigoted. They were unwilling to listen to or reflect upon anything that went against their cherished perceptions and practices. The Bereans were more noble-minded, however, because they were willing to practice what might be termed Reflective Openness, rather than a dogmatic, self-righteous, close-mindedness which would in effect have said, "Go away, Paul. We've already got all the answers. We're right, everyone else is wrong. We're the only ones approved of God; the only ones who are saved." The Bereans, on the other hand, did not believe themselves to be the sole possessors of all Truth. They were constantly open to a better understanding of what God would have them to know, to do, and to be ... even if it meant radical change.
.... With Great Eagerness
The Berean Jews had noble minds, and receptive minds, for the simple reason that they had eager minds. When Luke says they "received the word with great eagerness," he uses the Greek word prothumia, which means: "readiness, willingness and eagerness of mind." It denotes a disposition or mindset that is free of prejudice and bias -- an open mind; a teachable mind. This Greek word "emphasizes a lack of prejudice" (Arndt & Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the NT and Other Early Christian Literature). The Bereans, simply stated, had a prothumian spirit; the spirit of the thugs from Thessalonica, in contrast, was merely pathetic.
Brother J.W. McGarvey correctly noted, in his classic commentary on Acts, that the obstinate Jews of Thessalonica, "having fallen into error by their traditions, resisted with passion and uproar every attempt to give them the true light; and their folly has been imitated ever since by both unbelievers and the partisans of religious error" (vol. 2, p. 115). "Hasty generalizations and fixed opinions must give way before larger light" (The Pulpit Commentary, vol. 18). The Berean Jews were willing to receive the teachings of Paul, and they did so with hearts and minds free of personal prejudice and religious bias. They were willing to listen, but that did not mean they were gullible. Yes, they would listen ... but they would also take everything they heard to the One Source for validation.
Examination Unto Validation
The apostle Paul informs us that one of the qualities of their "noble-mindedness" was that they "examined the Scriptures daily, to see whether these things were so" (Acts 17:11). Being noble of mind and eager of mind does not mean one lacks spiritual discernment. It does not indicate one is thereby susceptible to any and every false and foolish teaching that comes one's way. It simply means one is open to receiving and examining carefully all relevant knowledge available, no matter how uncomfortable to one's personal convictions, in order to arrive at a better understanding of Truth -- even if that Truth newly perceived should ultimately prove incompatible with what one has always assumed Truth to be. Thus, those disciples who are of noble spirit are open to responsible change when shown a more acceptable way from the Word. Such a man was Apollos (Acts 18:24f).
Those of "noble" mind do not flee to their "walled fortresses" to hide from challenges to their previous perceptions. Rather, they welcome such challenges as opportunities for further reflection upon God's inspired Word. They do not search the Scriptures daily merely to prove themselves right and all others wrong, but continually examine God's Word to grow in wisdom and understanding of ultimate Truth. Those more interested in discerning Truth than in defending Tradition have no fear of any challenge to their convictions. Indeed, they eagerly receive such challenges and engage in respectful dialogue with those of differing perspectives. Truth has nothing to fear from intense scrutiny. The more Truth is scrutinized, the more its nature is confirmed. Any practice, precept, tradition, or preference which cannot bear close examination from the Word of God should be immediately regarded as suspect, as should any person who flees from such in-depth scrutiny.
The thugs from Thessalonica were not open to such scrutiny of their beliefs; they ran Paul out of town rather than face it. The sectarians in Jerusalem were not open to such scrutiny of their beliefs, and they stopped up their ears and murdered Stephen. Some today are also not open to having their views examined in light of the Word, and they will attack without mercy any who dare to approach their "sacred cows" too closely. Such is not a commendable attitude. It is not a "Berean spirit." The Jews of Berea, on the other hand, "with commendable open-mindedness, brought the claims made by Paul to the touchstone of Holy Writ instead of giving way to prejudice" (F.F. Bruce, Commentary on the Book of the Acts). "It is only the profound believer who can afford to doubt. The faith which condemns inquiry, or stops it at a certain point, or is afraid of 'going too far,' is a blind faith" (The Pulpit Commentary, vol. 18). There is nothing commendable about an abject fear of inquiry, and neither is there anything contemptible about discerning disciples daring to display honest doubts about previously held positions and practices. A healthy diet of doubt, in a spiritually healthy disciple, will inevitably lead to in-depth, open-minded reflection upon our God's revelation, which can only result in increased spiritual awareness and maturity among His people.
* "No resting upon the ipsi dixit even of an apostle satisfied the Bereans, nor ought it to satisfy us" (ibid). "What we all need is a living love in all our studies, as opposed to a dead and notional knowledge" (ibid). Dr. Horatio Hackett observed, "If it was a proof of true nobleness in the Bereans to test the apostle's doctrine by comparing it with the sacred Scriptures in their possession, it must be a proof of true nobleness to do the same thing now -- to prove all things and hold fast that which is good (1 Thess. 5:21), to subject novel opinions to a thorough comparison with the established word of God" (Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, p. 196).
The greatest fear of those of like mind with the Thessalonicans seems to be that their cherished notions and sacred traditions may well have to be altered or abandoned to conform with Truth. But is not such responsible refinement of one's convictions and practices the purpose of honest self-examination? Is this not why we should challenge our own thinking on a regular basis? Another reason many may fear such examination, and why they may resist it so strongly, is that they fear the reaction of their fellow factionists. It is unpleasant in the extreme to cross Party lines! One will be turned upon and torn asunder in short order for daring to differ with "the way we have always believed." It is done at great personal peril. Some are simply unwilling to face such vicious vilification. Such fear and reluctance is not a quality of "noble-mindedness," however.
Alexander Campbell wrote, "If I am not slandered and misrepresented, I shall be a most unworthy advocate of the cause which has always provoked the resentment of those who will not try to think and learn." A willingness to reflect upon Truth with an open mind and an eager, honest heart has never been for the timid or fearful. It takes genuine courage, deep faith, and sincere commitment to expose ourselves and our convictions to the light of God's inspired Word, and to then conform to whatever Truth is thereby revealed to us. It also takes courage to expose ourselves to the harsh pejoratives which will most certainly come from those who will not engage in such free thought, and who do not possess a "Berean spirit."
Like countless spiritual worthies who have preceded us, known and unknown, may God grant us each the courage and strength of conviction to embrace and employ, regardless of personal cost or sacrifice, this marvelous quality of daily, in-depth reflection upon God's Word, and a willingness to receive responsible challenges to our faith for the purpose of perceiving if "these things be so." The challenge of Acts 17 to each of us today is: Are you a thug or a thinker? It is my prayer that more and more disciples of Christ will truly dare to be Bereans.
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Reflections from Readers
From a Minister in Tennessee:
Amen, brother. I understand where you are coming from. Thanks for an excellent article (Evangelizing the Enslaved). The older I get, the more I see happening among us the very sectarianism we have fought against all these years. Yet, we blindly flail the air fighting ourselves without realizing who our real enemy is. Slowly the wake up call is being heard!
From a Youth Minister in Alabama:
Al, Please add me to your subscription list for Reflections. I enjoyed reading Evangelizing the Enslaved. I agree that the church needs more open-minded people to band together to help bring the light of freedom to the spiritually enslaved. I believe God has been using me in that endeavor in the last 17 years of my youth ministry. One of the main reasons I have stayed in youth ministry so long is because of teenagers' ability to see beyond tradition-bound legalism and be open to the grace-filled life Christ called us to in the first place. As you stated, it hasn't been easy. I too have had my share of personal attacks. Being a paid minister in a conservative church doesn't help either. Your Reflections will provide support and encouragement that I desperately need. Thank you, and may God bring you strength, resolve and perseverance.
From a Reader in West Virginia:
Al, Thank you for yet another great explanation of scripture in your analysis of John 6:28-29. Just last week a minister in our congregation brought up this verse as we discussed the topic of belief. I have forwarded your article to him, which I know he will receive as a disciple desiring to grow in understanding of God's Word. Thanks for your great work and for sharing it with all of us!
From a Reader in Oklahoma:
I just read Reflections #117 -- The Gospel - Doctrine Debate. I too have often sought a more simple definition of "the gospel." While reading the first chapter of Romans recently, I read two familiar scriptures that I have read many times before (vs. 16-17), and a light suddenly came on. I went back and read them again, and the light got brighter. In those two verses, I found (at least for me) the true meaning of the gospel: "the righteous will live by faith." In the gospel, a righteousness from God is revealed; a righteousness that could only be achieved by putting ones total faith and trust in God Almighty. As I sat in Bible class tonight, and spoke about faith, the only response I could get was, "Oh yeah, we need that too." It was almost as if they didn't understand what I was talking about. I wondered how this self-righteous attitude became so engrained in the Churches of Christ.
From a Reader in North Carolina:
Al, that was another fantastic article, brother! When I read the descriptive phrases "religious Rottweilers" and "dogmatic Dobermans" I couldn't help but think of Philippians 3:2-3. I was glad to see you used it in this article. And I love the idea of BEING the church, not just going TO the church! That speaks volumes, and "hits the nail on the head," about many of our "enslaved" brethren. God help us to help them to free their minds so they may enjoy TRUE freedom in Christ!
From a Reader in (Unknown):
I want to thank you for your ministry, brother Al. I especially appreciate your most recent Reflections. Be Strong and Courageous!!
From a Missionary to Croatia:
Al, Please add me to your mailing list. I am an ACU graduate and a missionary, preaching freedom in Christ, to Croatia. I have been greatly encouraged by what I read in your Reflections (they have been forwarded to me by a friend in Texas). I pray that God will use your wonderful writings to bring insight and peace to so many who have been burdened with so much guilt, and to those who have never really enjoyed FREEDOM in CHRIST.
From a Doctor in Kentucky:
Al, This last article was great. It certainly has given me a reason to "Soldier On" when it comes to the enslaved. It makes me extremely proud of my heritage in the A Cappella Churches of Christ when I read your articles and hear your zeal for helping those who have not found freedom in Christ. Since making my transition from enslaved Churches of Christ (most of them in this area are) to a Christian Church, I have often felt guilty for not trying to have some "dialogue" with those I formerly knew in the enslaved groups. I guess, in my defense, I was just tired of being spoken of as "the Liberal," or had a fear of yet another "marking" by them. Although I did recently send an email to a former friend who is a preacher in the Non-Institutional Churches of Christ. Keep up the good work!
From a Minister in Mississippi:
I am a new minister struggling in the buckle of the "Bible Belt" where I have learned that less and less of the Bible is being taught, and even less of the Bible's teachings are being followed. I have been blessed with a good friend who has shared your Reflections with me, and I would love to subscribe to your weekly writings. I think you are right on in your efforts to free those enslaved. The problem is: most of them do not realize they are in captivity, either that or they are too afraid to live as freed-men. I have devoted my ministry to showing people the true nature of God. I believe if we understood the character of God, our outlook and application of scripture would change dramatically. Thank you for your passion!
From a Minister/Elder in New Jersey:
Paul told the Roman saints that some were given gifts of prophecy, serving, teaching, encouraging, contributing (I think we need to have the "office" of contributor), leadership and mercy. He left out one -- "freedom fighter." You are a freedom fighter, Al. That is your gift. Paul encourages the Roman saints to exercise their gifts cheerfully. Keep on brother, you are not alone -- you are the wind beneath our wings -- may we be an encouragement to you. God has 7000 (or more) who have not bowed down to Baal; may we exercise our gift of encouragement to you. May God grant you the vision to see the hill full of horses and chariots of fire surrounding you; to see that there are more with us than those with them.
From a Well-Known Leader in Texas:
Dear Al, There's no way to tell you what you mean in my life and have come to mean in the lives of so many of my friends and acquaintances who've been given encouragement and hope through my being able to share your Reflections with them. As I see your ministry and sphere of influence growing and spreading, I'm sure you must have a sense of your place in the history that will be written of this era in our brotherhood. I pray daily for your health and that you be shielded from the fiery darts of Satan, as well as for your boldness to continue doing what you do so well. Keep soldiering!!
From a Reader in Canada:
Al, as I read your latest Reflections I sensed that you have been sometimes wounded in your efforts to preach freedom in Christ. The blows you take to succeed in your mission are not easy ones to bear, but they are blows that many others are not even willing or ready to take. Successful people do the things that unsuccessful people won't attempt. You have proven this in your own ministry. That is why you have had such great success in reaching so many who have been spiritually stifled in their current situation. You have been a winner for the Lord in your stated purpose for Reflections. Bumped and bruised, but still a winner! I truly regret you have been hunted and hounded by hateful people who claim to be followers of Christ. I really love and respect you, brother, and would give almost anything to be able to sit in on your assemblies and learn. I will continue to pray for you and your family.
From a Reader in California:
I just about died laughing at the absurdity of those concerned with "the pinkie protruding from the pond." And yet I know without a doubt that these things really do happen because, as I have probably told you before, I too came from a patternistic background. These people actually had a heated discussion over whether or not they should use enriched flour for the loaf, and whether or not they should use vitamin C enriched grape juice for the communion cup. One particular Sunday -- when I myself was in charge of making the communion loaf that morning -- I discovered (much to my horror) that the loaf had split into two pieces during the trip to the church building! I made a flying trip back to my house (several miles - breaking the speed limit no doubt), missing most of the service, in order to make another loaf. Never again! Never again! I will never again revert to such stupidity!
Making sure every inch of a repentant person was immersed for fear of leaving a digit behind on the day of resurrection was just laughable, and yet we had been a part of such insanity for many years. I even remember that, during my youth, a rather tall gentleman was being baptized and hit his head on the end of baptistery, almost knocking him cold -- so they rebaptized him for fear that he might have lost consciousness momentarily at some point during his new birth!! Lord help us, for we are often too ignorant to help ourselves!
From a Prison Minister in Oklahoma:
Al, I read with personal interest the comments about the person not being completely immersed, an elbow or toe coming up as the rest went down. It brought to mind the first baptism I ever did in the prison. The candidate for baptism was a huge man in every way, height, weight, width, depth. Our baptistery is limited in size. As he was being immersed I noticed that even though his back was touching the bottom of the tank, his belly was still above the water line and above the maximum upper edge of the tank. I motioned for those around me to help slosh water on him to get him as nearly covered as we could. The man has been ever so faithful these past nine years. Question -- Assuming continued faithfulness until death, must he go through eternity minus his belly? Did we do right by sloshing him? Did we add to the Scriptures by inventing the sloshing method of baptism? I hope you can see the "tongue in cheek" of these questions! We surely do battle some pretty weak opponents when we wrestle such arguments, do we not?!
From a Reader in Oklahoma:
Brother Al, After reading your last Reflections, "Evangelizing the Enslaved," I couldn't help but think of you this evening when I read what the apostle Paul said in I Cor. 16:9 about his own missionary work -- "a great door for effective work has opened to me, and there are many who oppose me." Keep up the good work. You are giving many of us hope and encouragement to hang in there, and maybe we too can be an agent for change in the Churches of Christ as we all earnestly contend for that faith which was once and for all delivered to the saints.
From a Reader in Colorado:
Brother Al, Thank you for another wonderful Reflections. Please know that for every false brother who reviles you, there are many more who are appreciative and encouraged by your efforts. While I probably cannot relate to the number and ferocity of the personal attacks you and your family have been subjected to, I can relate to being attacked. The journey from the slavery of legalistic patternism to the freedom of grace and faith has been a difficult one for me. My wife and my children wondered what was happening to me as I struggled to remove the chains. Now, they too enjoy freedom in Christ and have drawn closer to Him. Your Reflections articles, the writings of Cecil Hook, Edward Fudge, Carl Ketcherside and others, have been a tremendous help, along with a personal study of the Stone-Campbell Movement, which has really opened my eyes to the true nature of our tradition. Don't lose heart, there are lots of us out here enjoined in the battle. We should all be a Barnabas to each other and to those whose spirits yearn for freedom. God bless you and your family.
From a Veterinarian in Idaho:
Please include me in your email list for Reflections. I did not grow up in a Christian home. Consequently, I have not had to overcome traditions that some try to make doctrine. Ever since I became aware of the problem, it has been my earnest desire to see legalists discover and accept GRACE. Keep up the good work!
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Psalm 139:1; Psalm 139:2; Psalm 139:3; Matthew 10:29-31; Genesis 1:27; Acts 17:28; Jeremiah 1:4-5; Ephesians 1:11-12; Psalm 139:15-16; Acts 17:26; Psalm 139:13; Psalm 71:6 (New International Version)
Psalm 139:1
Psalm 139
For the director of music. Of David. A psalm.
1 O LORD, you have searched me
and you know me.
Psalm 139:2
2 You know when I sit and when I rise;
you perceive my thoughts from afar.
Psalm 139:3
3 You discern my going out and my lying down;
you are familiar with all my ways.
Matthew 10:29-31
29Are not two sparrows sold for a penny[a]? Yet not one of them will fall to the ground apart from the will of your Father. 30And even the very hairs of your head are all numbered. 31So don't be afraid; you are worth more than many sparrows.
1. Matthew 10:29 Greek an assarion
Genesis 1:27
27 So God created man in his own image,
in the image of God he created him;
male and female he created them.
Acts 17:28
28'For in him we live and move and have our being.' As some of your own poets have said, 'We are his offspring.'
Acts 17:28
28'For in him we live and move and have our being.' As some of your own poets have said, 'We are his offspring.'
Jeremiah 1:4-5
The Call of Jeremiah
4 The word of the LORD came to me, saying,
5 "Before I formed you in the womb I knew [a] you,
before you were born I set you apart;
I appointed you as a prophet to the nations."
1. Jeremiah 1:5 Or chose
Ephesians 1:11-12
111In him we were also chosen,[a] having been predestined according to the plan of him who works out everything in conformity with the purpose of his will, 12in order that we, who were the first to hope in Christ, might be for the praise of his glory.
1. Ephesians 1:11 Or were made heirs
Psalm 139:15-16
15 My frame was not hidden from you
when I was made in the secret place.
When I was woven together in the depths of the earth,
16 your eyes saw my unformed body.
All the days ordained for me
were written in your book
before one of them came to be.
Acts 17:26
6From one man he made every nation of men, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he determined the times set for them and the exact places where they should live.
13 For you created my inmost being;
you knit me together in my mother's womb.
Psalm 71:6
6 From birth I have relied on you;
you brought me forth from my mother's womb.
I will ever praise you.
Psalm 139:1, Psalm 139:2, Psalm 139:3, Matthew 10:29-31, Genesis 1:27, Acts 17:28, Acts 17:28, Jeremiah 1:4-5, Ephesians 1:11-12, Psalm 139:15-16, Acts 17:26, Psalm 39:14, Psalm 139:13, Psalm 71:6,
John 8:41-44, 1 John 4:16, 1 John 3:1, 1 John 3:1, Matthew 7:11, Matthew 5:48, James 1:17, Matthew 6:31-33, Jeremiah Jeremiah 31:3, Psalms 139:17-18, Zephaniah 3:17, Jeremiah 32:40, Exodus 19:5, Jeremiah 32:41, Jeremiah 33:3, Deuteronomy 4:29, Psalm 37:4, Philippians 2:13,
Ephesians 3:20, 2 Thessalonians 2:16-17, 2 Corinthians 1:3-4, Psalm 34:18, Isaiah 40:11, Revelation 21:3-4, Revelation 21:3-4, John 17:23, John 17:26, Hebrews 1:3, Romans 8:31, 2 Corinthians 5:18-19, 2 Corinthians 5:18-19, 1 John 4:10, Romans 8:31-32,
(New International Version)
New International Version (NIV)
29:11,
Jeremiah 31:3,
Psalms 139:17-18,
Zephaniah 3:17,
Jeremiah 32:40,
Exodus 19:5,
Jeremiah 32:41,
Jeremiah 33:3,
Deuteronomy 4:29,
Psalm 37:4,
Philippians 2:13,
Ephesians 3:20,
2 Thessalonians 2:16-17,
2 Corinthians 1:3-4,
Psalm 34:18,
Isaiah 40:11,
Revelation 21:3-4,
Revelation 21:3-4,
John 17:23,
John 17:26,
Hebrews 1:3,
Romans 8:31,
2 Corinthians 5:18-19,
2 Corinthians 5:18-19,
1 John 4:10,
Romans 8:31-32,
1 John 2:23,
Romans 8:38-39,
Luke 15:7,
Ephesians 3:14-15,
John 1:12-13,
Luke 15:11-32,
Colossians 1:15,
Philippians 2:6-8,
Jeremiah 31:3
3 The LORD appeared to us in the past, [a] saying:
"I have loved you with an everlasting love;
I have drawn you with loving-kindness.
Footnotes:
1. Jeremiah 31:3 Or LORD has appeared to us from afar
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 139:17-18
17 How precious to [a] me are your thoughts, O God!
How vast is the sum of them!
18 Were I to count them,
they would outnumber the grains of sand.
When I awake,
I am still with you.
Footnotes:
1. Psalm 139:17 Or concerning
New International Version (NIV)
Zephaniah 3:17
17 The LORD your God is with you,
he is mighty to save.
He will take great delight in you,
he will quiet you with his love,
he will rejoice over you with singing."
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 32:40
40 I will make an everlasting covenant with them: I will never stop doing good to them, and I will inspire them to fear me, so that they will never turn away from me.
New International Version (NIV)
Exodus 19:5
5 Now if you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of all nations you will be my treasured possession. Although the whole earth is mine,
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 32:41
41 I will rejoice in doing them good and will assuredly plant them in this land with all my heart and soul.
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 33:3
3 'Call to me and I will answer you and tell you great and unsearchable things you do not know.'
New International Version (NIV)
Deuteronomy 4:29
29 But if from there you seek the LORD your God, you will find him if you look for him with all your heart and with all your soul.
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 37:4
4 Delight yourself in the LORD
and he will give you the desires of your heart.
New International Version (NIV)
Philippians 2:13
13for it is God who works in you to will and to act according to his good purpose.
New International Version (NIV)
Ephesians 3:20
20Now to him who is able to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine, according to his power that is at work within us,
New International Version (NIV)
2 Thessalonians 2:16-17
16May our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved us and by his grace gave us eternal encouragement and good hope, 17encourage your hearts and strengthen you in every good deed and word.
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 1:3-4
The God of All Comfort
3Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort, 4who comforts us in all our troubles, so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves have received from God.
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 34:18
18 The LORD is close to the brokenhearted
and saves those who are crushed in spirit.
New International Version (NIV)
Isaiah 40:11
11 He tends his flock like a shepherd:
He gathers the lambs in his arms
and carries them close to his heart;
he gently leads those that have young.
New International Version (NIV)
Revelation 21:3-4
3And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, "Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. 4He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away."
New International Version (NIV)
Revelation 21:3-4
3And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, "Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. 4He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away."
New International Version (NIV)
John 17:23
23I in them and you in me. May they be brought to complete unity to let the world know that you sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me.
New International Version (NIV)
John 17:26
26I have made you known to them, and will continue to make you known in order that the love you have for me may be in them and that I myself may be in them."
New International Version (NIV)
Hebrews 1:3
3The Son is the radiance of God's glory and the exact representation of his being, sustaining all things by his powerful word. After he had provided purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty in heaven.
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:31
31What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us?
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 5:18-19
18All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation: 19that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them. And he has committed to us the message of reconciliation.
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 5:18-19
18All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation: 19that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them. And he has committed to us the message of reconciliation.
New International Version (NIV)
1 John 4:10
10This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for[a] our sins.
Footnotes:
1. 1 John 4:10 Or as the one who would turn aside his wrath, taking away
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:31-32
31What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us? 32He who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all—how will he not also, along with him, graciously give us all things?
1 John 2:23; Romans 8:38-39; Luke 15:7; Ephesians 3:14-15; John 1:12-13; Luke 15:11-32; Colossians 1:15; Philippians 2:6-8; Jeremiah 31:3; Psalm 139:17-18; Zephaniah 3:17; Jeremiah 32:40; Exodus 19:5; Jeremiah 32:41; Jeremiah 33:3; Deuteronomy 4:29; Psalm 37:4; Philippians 2:13; Ephesians 3:20; 2 Thessalonians 2:16-17; 2 Corinthians 1:3-4; Psalm 34:18; Isaiah 40:11; Revelation 21:3-4; John 17:23 (New International Version)
New International Version (NIV)
1 John 2:23
23No one who denies the Son has the Father; whoever acknowledges the Son has the Father also.
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:38-39
38For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons,[a] neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, 39neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord.
Footnotes:
1. Romans 8:38 Or nor heavenly rulers
New International Version (NIV)
Luke 15:7
7I tell you that in the same way there will be more rejoicing in heaven over one sinner who repents than over ninety-nine righteous persons who do not need to repent.
New International Version (NIV)
Ephesians 3:14-15
A Prayer for the Ephesians
14For this reason I kneel before the Father, 15from whom his whole family[a] in heaven and on earth derives its name.
Footnotes:
1. Ephesians 3:15 Or whom all fatherhood
New International Version (NIV)
John 1:12-13
12Yet to all who received him, to those who believed in his name, he gave the right to become children of God— 13children born not of natural descent,[a] nor of human decision or a husband's will, but born of God.
Footnotes:
1. John 1:13 Greek of bloods
New International Version (NIV)
Luke 15:11-32
The Parable of the Lost Son
11Jesus continued: "There was a man who had two sons. 12The younger one said to his father, 'Father, give me my share of the estate.' So he divided his property between them.
13"Not long after that, the younger son got together all he had, set off for a distant country and there squandered his wealth in wild living. 14After he had spent everything, there was a severe famine in that whole country, and he began to be in need. 15So he went and hired himself out to a citizen of that country, who sent him to his fields to feed pigs. 16He longed to fill his stomach with the pods that the pigs were eating, but no one gave him anything.
17"When he came to his senses, he said, 'How many of my father's hired men have food to spare, and here I am starving to death! 18I will set out and go back to my father and say to him: Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. 19I am no longer worthy to be called your son; make me like one of your hired men.' 20So he got up and went to his father.
"But while he was still a long way off, his father saw him and was filled with compassion for him; he ran to his son, threw his arms around him and kissed him.
21"The son said to him, 'Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. I am no longer worthy to be called your son.[a]'
22"But the father said to his servants, 'Quick! Bring the best robe and put it on him. Put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet. 23Bring the fattened calf and kill it. Let's have a feast and celebrate. 24For this son of mine was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found.' So they began to celebrate.
25"Meanwhile, the older son was in the field. When he came near the house, he heard music and dancing. 26So he called one of the servants and asked him what was going on. 27'Your brother has come,' he replied, 'and your father has killed the fattened calf because he has him back safe and sound.'
28"The older brother became angry and refused to go in. So his father went out and pleaded with him. 29But he answered his father, 'Look! All these years I've been slaving for you and never disobeyed your orders. Yet you never gave me even a young goat so I could celebrate with my friends. 30But when this son of yours who has squandered your property with prostitutes comes home, you kill the fattened calf for him!'
31" 'My son,' the father said, 'you are always with me, and everything I have is yours. 32But we had to celebrate and be glad, because this brother of yours was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found.' "
Footnotes:
1. Luke 15:21 Some early manuscripts son. Make me like one of your hired men.
New International Version (NIV)
Colossians 1:15
The Supremacy of Christ
15He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation.
New International Version (NIV)
Philippians 2:6-8
6Who, being in very nature[a] God,
did not consider equality with God something to be grasped,
7but made himself nothing,
taking the very nature[b] of a servant,
being made in human likeness.
8And being found in appearance as a man,
he humbled himself
and became obedient to death—
even death on a cross!
Footnotes:
1. Philippians 2:6 Or in the form of
2. Philippians 2:7 Or the form
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 31:3
3 The LORD appeared to us in the past, [a] saying:
"I have loved you with an everlasting love;
I have drawn you with loving-kindness.
Footnotes:
1. Jeremiah 31:3 Or LORD has appeared to us from afar
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 139:17-18
17 How precious to [a] me are your thoughts, O God!
How vast is the sum of them!
18 Were I to count them,
they would outnumber the grains of sand.
When I awake,
I am still with you.
Footnotes:
1. Psalm 139:17 Or concerning
New International Version (NIV)
Zephaniah 3:17
17 The LORD your God is with you,
he is mighty to save.
He will take great delight in you,
he will quiet you with his love,
he will rejoice over you with singing."
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 32:40
40 I will make an everlasting covenant with them: I will never stop doing good to them, and I will inspire them to fear me, so that they will never turn away from me.
New International Version (NIV)
Exodus 19:5
5 Now if you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of all nations you will be my treasured possession. Although the whole earth is mine,
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 32:41
41 I will rejoice in doing them good and will assuredly plant them in this land with all my heart and soul.
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 33:3
3 'Call to me and I will answer you and tell you great and unsearchable things you do not know.'
New International Version (NIV)
Deuteronomy 4:29
29 But if from there you seek the LORD your God, you will find him if you look for him with all your heart and with all your soul.
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 37:4
4 Delight yourself in the LORD
and he will give you the desires of your heart.
New International Version (NIV)
Philippians 2:13
13for it is God who works in you to will and to act according to his good purpose.
New International Version (NIV)
Ephesians 3:20
20Now to him who is able to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine, according to his power that is at work within us,
New International Version (NIV)
2 Thessalonians 2:16-17
16May our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved us and by his grace gave us eternal encouragement and good hope, 17encourage your hearts and strengthen you in every good deed and word.
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 1:3-4
The God of All Comfort
3Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort, 4who comforts us in all our troubles, so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves have received from God.
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 34:18
18 The LORD is close to the brokenhearted
and saves those who are crushed in spirit.
New International Version (NIV)
Isaiah 40:11
11 He tends his flock like a shepherd:
He gathers the lambs in his arms
and carries them close to his heart;
he gently leads those that have young.
New International Version (NIV)
Revelation 21:3-4
3And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, "Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. 4He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away."
New International Version (NIV)
John 17:23
23I in them and you in me. May they be brought to complete unity to let the world know that you sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me.
John 17:26; Hebrews 1:3; Romans 8:31; 2 Corinthians 5:18-19; 1 John 4:10; Romans 8:31-32; 1 John 2:23; Romans 8:38-39; Luke 15:7; Ephesians 3:14-15; John 1:12-13; Luke 15:11-32; Colossians 1:15; Philippians 2:6-8; Jeremiah 31:3; Psalm 139:17-18; Zephaniah 3:17; Jeremiah 32:40; Exodus 19:5; Jeremiah 32:41; Jeremiah 33:3; Deuteronomy 4:29; Psalm 37:4; Philippians 2:13 (New International Version)
New International Version (NIV)
John 17:26
26I have made you known to them, and will continue to make you known in order that the love you have for me may be in them and that I myself may be in them."
New International Version (NIV)
Hebrews 1:3
3The Son is the radiance of God's glory and the exact representation of his being, sustaining all things by his powerful word. After he had provided purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty in heaven.
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:31
31What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us?
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 5:18-19
18All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation: 19that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them. And he has committed to us the message of reconciliation.
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 5:18-19
18All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation: 19that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them. And he has committed to us the message of reconciliation.
New International Version (NIV)
1 John 4:10
10This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for[a] our sins.
Footnotes:
1. 1 John 4:10 Or as the one who would turn aside his wrath, taking away
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:31-32
31What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us? 32He who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all—how will he not also, along with him, graciously give us all things?
New International Version (NIV)
1 John 2:23
23No one who denies the Son has the Father; whoever acknowledges the Son has the Father also.
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:38-39
38For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons,[a] neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, 39neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord.
Footnotes:
1. Romans 8:38 Or nor heavenly rulers
New International Version (NIV)
Luke 15:7
7I tell you that in the same way there will be more rejoicing in heaven over one sinner who repents than over ninety-nine righteous persons who do not need to repent.
New International Version (NIV)
Ephesians 3:14-15
A Prayer for the Ephesians
14For this reason I kneel before the Father, 15from whom his whole family[a] in heaven and on earth derives its name.
Footnotes:
1. Ephesians 3:15 Or whom all fatherhood
New International Version (NIV)
John 1:12-13
12Yet to all who received him, to those who believed in his name, he gave the right to become children of God— 13children born not of natural descent,[a] nor of human decision or a husband's will, but born of God.
Footnotes:
1. John 1:13 Greek of bloods
New International Version (NIV)
Luke 15:11-32
The Parable of the Lost Son
11Jesus continued: "There was a man who had two sons. 12The younger one said to his father, 'Father, give me my share of the estate.' So he divided his property between them.
13"Not long after that, the younger son got together all he had, set off for a distant country and there squandered his wealth in wild living. 14After he had spent everything, there was a severe famine in that whole country, and he began to be in need. 15So he went and hired himself out to a citizen of that country, who sent him to his fields to feed pigs. 16He longed to fill his stomach with the pods that the pigs were eating, but no one gave him anything.
17"When he came to his senses, he said, 'How many of my father's hired men have food to spare, and here I am starving to death! 18I will set out and go back to my father and say to him: Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. 19I am no longer worthy to be called your son; make me like one of your hired men.' 20So he got up and went to his father.
"But while he was still a long way off, his father saw him and was filled with compassion for him; he ran to his son, threw his arms around him and kissed him.
21"The son said to him, 'Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. I am no longer worthy to be called your son.[a]'
22"But the father said to his servants, 'Quick! Bring the best robe and put it on him. Put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet. 23Bring the fattened calf and kill it. Let's have a feast and celebrate. 24For this son of mine was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found.' So they began to celebrate.
25"Meanwhile, the older son was in the field. When he came near the house, he heard music and dancing. 26So he called one of the servants and asked him what was going on. 27'Your brother has come,' he replied, 'and your father has killed the fattened calf because he has him back safe and sound.'
28"The older brother became angry and refused to go in. So his father went out and pleaded with him. 29But he answered his father, 'Look! All these years I've been slaving for you and never disobeyed your orders. Yet you never gave me even a young goat so I could celebrate with my friends. 30But when this son of yours who has squandered your property with prostitutes comes home, you kill the fattened calf for him!'
31" 'My son,' the father said, 'you are always with me, and everything I have is yours. 32But we had to celebrate and be glad, because this brother of yours was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found.' "
Footnotes:
1. Luke 15:21 Some early manuscripts son. Make me like one of your hired men.
New International Version (NIV)
Colossians 1:15
The Supremacy of Christ
15He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation.
New International Version (NIV)
Philippians 2:6-8
6Who, being in very nature[a] God,
did not consider equality with God something to be grasped,
7but made himself nothing,
taking the very nature[b] of a servant,
being made in human likeness.
8And being found in appearance as a man,
he humbled himself
and became obedient to death—
even death on a cross!
Footnotes:
1. Philippians 2:6 Or in the form of
2. Philippians 2:7 Or the form
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 31:3
3 The LORD appeared to us in the past, [a] saying:
"I have loved you with an everlasting love;
I have drawn you with loving-kindness.
Footnotes:
1. Jeremiah 31:3 Or LORD has appeared to us from afar
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 139:17-18
17 How precious to [a] me are your thoughts, O God!
How vast is the sum of them!
18 Were I to count them,
they would outnumber the grains of sand.
When I awake,
I am still with you.
Footnotes:
1. Psalm 139:17 Or concerning
New International Version (NIV)
Zephaniah 3:17
17 The LORD your God is with you,
he is mighty to save.
He will take great delight in you,
he will quiet you with his love,
he will rejoice over you with singing."
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 32:40
40 I will make an everlasting covenant with them: I will never stop doing good to them, and I will inspire them to fear me, so that they will never turn away from me.
New International Version (NIV)
Exodus 19:5
5 Now if you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of all nations you will be my treasured possession. Although the whole earth is mine,
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 32:41
41 I will rejoice in doing them good and will assuredly plant them in this land with all my heart and soul.
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 33:3
3 'Call to me and I will answer you and tell you great and unsearchable things you do not know.'
New International Version (NIV)
Deuteronomy 4:29
29 But if from there you seek the LORD your God, you will find him if you look for him with all your heart and with all your soul.
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 37:4
4 Delight yourself in the LORD
and he will give you the desires of your heart.
New International Version (NIV)
Philippians 2:13
13for it is God who works in you to will and to act according to his good purpose.
Ephesians 3:20; 2 Thessalonians 2:16-17; 2 Corinthians 1:3-4; Psalm 34:18; Isaiah 40:11; Revelation 21:3-4; John 17:23; John 17:26; Hebrews 1:3; Romans 8:31; 2 Corinthians 5:18-19; 1 John 4:10; Romans 8:31-32; 1 John 2:23; Romans 8:38-39; Luke 15:7; Ephesians 3:14-15; John 1:12-13; Luke 15:11-32; Colossians 1:15; Philippians 2:6-8; Jeremiah 31:3; Psalm 139:17-18 (New International Version)
New International Version (NIV)
Ephesians 3:20
20Now to him who is able to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine, according to his power that is at work within us,
New International Version (NIV)
2 Thessalonians 2:16-17
16May our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved us and by his grace gave us eternal encouragement and good hope, 17encourage your hearts and strengthen you in every good deed and word.
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 1:3-4
The God of All Comfort
3Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort, 4who comforts us in all our troubles, so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves have received from God.
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 34:18
18 The LORD is close to the brokenhearted
and saves those who are crushed in spirit.
New International Version (NIV)
Isaiah 40:11
11 He tends his flock like a shepherd:
He gathers the lambs in his arms
and carries them close to his heart;
he gently leads those that have young.
New International Version (NIV)
Revelation 21:3-4
3And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, "Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. 4He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away."
New International Version (NIV)
Revelation 21:3-4
3And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, "Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. 4He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away."
New International Version (NIV)
John 17:23
23I in them and you in me. May they be brought to complete unity to let the world know that you sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me.
New International Version (NIV)
John 17:26
26I have made you known to them, and will continue to make you known in order that the love you have for me may be in them and that I myself may be in them."
New International Version (NIV)
Hebrews 1:3
3The Son is the radiance of God's glory and the exact representation of his being, sustaining all things by his powerful word. After he had provided purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty in heaven.
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:31
31What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us?
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 5:18-19
18All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation: 19that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them. And he has committed to us the message of reconciliation.
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 5:18-19
18All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation: 19that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them. And he has committed to us the message of reconciliation.
New International Version (NIV)
1 John 4:10
10This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for[a] our sins.
Footnotes:
1. 1 John 4:10 Or as the one who would turn aside his wrath, taking away
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:31-32
31What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us? 32He who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all—how will he not also, along with him, graciously give us all things?
New International Version (NIV)
1 John 2:23
23No one who denies the Son has the Father; whoever acknowledges the Son has the Father also.
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:38-39
38For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons,[a] neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, 39neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord.
Footnotes:
1. Romans 8:38 Or nor heavenly rulers
New International Version (NIV)
Luke 15:7
7I tell you that in the same way there will be more rejoicing in heaven over one sinner who repents than over ninety-nine righteous persons who do not need to repent.
New International Version (NIV)
Ephesians 3:14-15
A Prayer for the Ephesians
14For this reason I kneel before the Father, 15from whom his whole family[a] in heaven and on earth derives its name.
Footnotes:
1. Ephesians 3:15 Or whom all fatherhood
New International Version (NIV)
John 1:12-13
12Yet to all who received him, to those who believed in his name, he gave the right to become children of God— 13children born not of natural descent,[a] nor of human decision or a husband's will, but born of God.
Footnotes:
1. John 1:13 Greek of bloods
New International Version (NIV)
Luke 15:11-32
The Parable of the Lost Son
11Jesus continued: "There was a man who had two sons. 12The younger one said to his father, 'Father, give me my share of the estate.' So he divided his property between them.
13"Not long after that, the younger son got together all he had, set off for a distant country and there squandered his wealth in wild living. 14After he had spent everything, there was a severe famine in that whole country, and he began to be in need. 15So he went and hired himself out to a citizen of that country, who sent him to his fields to feed pigs. 16He longed to fill his stomach with the pods that the pigs were eating, but no one gave him anything.
17"When he came to his senses, he said, 'How many of my father's hired men have food to spare, and here I am starving to death! 18I will set out and go back to my father and say to him: Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. 19I am no longer worthy to be called your son; make me like one of your hired men.' 20So he got up and went to his father.
"But while he was still a long way off, his father saw him and was filled with compassion for him; he ran to his son, threw his arms around him and kissed him.
21"The son said to him, 'Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you. I am no longer worthy to be called your son.[a]'
22"But the father said to his servants, 'Quick! Bring the best robe and put it on him. Put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet. 23Bring the fattened calf and kill it. Let's have a feast and celebrate. 24For this son of mine was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found.' So they began to celebrate.
25"Meanwhile, the older son was in the field. When he came near the house, he heard music and dancing. 26So he called one of the servants and asked him what was going on. 27'Your brother has come,' he replied, 'and your father has killed the fattened calf because he has him back safe and sound.'
28"The older brother became angry and refused to go in. So his father went out and pleaded with him. 29But he answered his father, 'Look! All these years I've been slaving for you and never disobeyed your orders. Yet you never gave me even a young goat so I could celebrate with my friends. 30But when this son of yours who has squandered your property with prostitutes comes home, you kill the fattened calf for him!'
31" 'My son,' the father said, 'you are always with me, and everything I have is yours. 32But we had to celebrate and be glad, because this brother of yours was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found.' "
Footnotes:
1. Luke 15:21 Some early manuscripts son. Make me like one of your hired men.
New International Version (NIV)
Colossians 1:15
The Supremacy of Christ
15He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation.
New International Version (NIV)
Philippians 2:6-8
6Who, being in very nature[a] God,
did not consider equality with God something to be grasped,
7but made himself nothing,
taking the very nature[b] of a servant,
being made in human likeness.
8And being found in appearance as a man,
he humbled himself
and became obedient to death—
even death on a cross!
Footnotes:
1. Philippians 2:6 Or in the form of
2. Philippians 2:7 Or the form
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 31:3
3 The LORD appeared to us in the past, [a] saying:
"I have loved you with an everlasting love;
I have drawn you with loving-kindness.
Footnotes:
1. Jeremiah 31:3 Or LORD has appeared to us from afar
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 139:17-18
17 How precious to [a] me are your thoughts, O God!
How vast is the sum of them!
18 Were I to count them,
they would outnumber the grains of sand.
When I awake,
I am still with you.
Psalm 139:17-18; Zephaniah 3:17; Jeremiah 32:40; Exodus 19:5; Jeremiah 32:41; Jeremiah 33:3; Deuteronomy 4:29; Psalm 37:4; Philippians 2:13; Ephesians 3:20; 2 Thessalonians 2:16-17; 2 Corinthians 1:3-4; Psalm 34:18; Isaiah 40:11; Revelation 21:3-4; John 17:23; John 17:26; Hebrews 1:3; Romans 8:31; 2 Corinthians 5:18-19; 1 John 4:10; Romans 8:31-32 (New International Version)
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 139:17-18
17 How precious to [a] me are your thoughts, O God!
How vast is the sum of them!
18 Were I to count them,
they would outnumber the grains of sand.
When I awake,
I am still with you.
Footnotes:
1. Psalm 139:17 Or concerning
New International Version (NIV)
Zephaniah 3:17
17 The LORD your God is with you,
he is mighty to save.
He will take great delight in you,
he will quiet you with his love,
he will rejoice over you with singing."
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 32:40
40 I will make an everlasting covenant with them: I will never stop doing good to them, and I will inspire them to fear me, so that they will never turn away from me.
New International Version (NIV)
Exodus 19:5
5 Now if you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of all nations you will be my treasured possession. Although the whole earth is mine,
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 32:41
41 I will rejoice in doing them good and will assuredly plant them in this land with all my heart and soul.
New International Version (NIV)
Jeremiah 33:3
3 'Call to me and I will answer you and tell you great and unsearchable things you do not know.'
New International Version (NIV)
Deuteronomy 4:29
29 But if from there you seek the LORD your God, you will find him if you look for him with all your heart and with all your soul.
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 37:4
4 Delight yourself in the LORD
and he will give you the desires of your heart.
New International Version (NIV)
Philippians 2:13
13for it is God who works in you to will and to act according to his good purpose.
New International Version (NIV)
Ephesians 3:20
20Now to him who is able to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine, according to his power that is at work within us,
New International Version (NIV)
2 Thessalonians 2:16-17
16May our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved us and by his grace gave us eternal encouragement and good hope, 17encourage your hearts and strengthen you in every good deed and word.
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 1:3-4
The God of All Comfort
3Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort, 4who comforts us in all our troubles, so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves have received from God.
New International Version (NIV)
Psalm 34:18
18 The LORD is close to the brokenhearted
and saves those who are crushed in spirit.
New International Version (NIV)
Isaiah 40:11
11 He tends his flock like a shepherd:
He gathers the lambs in his arms
and carries them close to his heart;
he gently leads those that have young.
New International Version (NIV)
Revelation 21:3-4
3And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, "Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. 4He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away."
New International Version (NIV)
John 17:23
23I in them and you in me. May they be brought to complete unity to let the world know that you sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me.
New International Version (NIV)
John 17:26
26I have made you known to them, and will continue to make you known in order that the love you have for me may be in them and that I myself may be in them."
New International Version (NIV)
Hebrews 1:3
3The Son is the radiance of God's glory and the exact representation of his being, sustaining all things by his powerful word. After he had provided purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty in heaven.
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:31
31What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us?
New International Version (NIV)
2 Corinthians 5:18-19
18All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation: 19that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them. And he has committed to us the message of reconciliation.
New International Version (NIV)
1 John 4:10
10This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for[a] our sins.
Footnotes:
1. 1 John 4:10 Or as the one who would turn aside his wrath, taking away
New International Version (NIV)
Romans 8:31-32
31What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us? 32He who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all—how will he not also, along with him, graciously give us all things?
Romans 8:31-32 (The Message)
The Message (MSG)
Copyright © 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2002 by Eugene H. Peterson
[The Message at Navpress] [NavPress]
31-39So, what do you think? With God on our side like this, how can we lose? If God didn't hesitate to put everything on the line for us, embracing our condition and exposing himself to the worst by sending his own Son, is there anything else he wouldn't gladly and freely do for us? And who would dare tangle with God by messing with one of God's chosen? Who would dare even to point a finger? The One who died for us—who was raised to life for us!—is in the presence of God at this very moment sticking up for us. Do you think anyone is going to be able to drive a wedge between us and Christ's love for us? There is no way! Not trouble, not hard times, not hatred, not hunger, not homelessness, not bullying threats, not backstabbing, not even the worst sins listed in Scripture:
They kill us in cold blood because they hate you.
We're sitting ducks; they pick us off one by one.
None of this fazes us because Jesus loves us. I'm absolutely convinced that nothing—nothing living or dead, angelic or demonic, today or tomorrow, high or low, thinkable or unthinkable—absolutely nothing can get between us and God's love because of the way that Jesus our Master has embraced us. 2:3-5).
John MacArthur explains that...
Circumcision was the sine qua non of Judaism. Had Timothy not been circumcised, the Jews would have assumed he was renouncing his Jewish heritage and choosing to live as a Gentile. Paul's circumcision of Timothy had nothing to do with salvation; he did it for expediency's sake, to avoid placing an unnecessary stumbling block in the way of Jewish evangelism. Timothys circumcision granted him full access to the synagogues he would visit with Paul and Silas...From Paul's actions concerning his two companions an important principle becomes evident. Missionaries must be sensitive to the unique characteristics of the cultures in which they work. As Paul did in circumcising Timothy, they should avoid giving any unnecessary offense. But like Paul in refusing to circumcise Titus, they must not compromise any of the timeless truths of Scripture. (MacArthur, J: Acts 1-12; Acts 13-28 Moody Press or Logos)
Bruce adds that...
By Jewish law Timothy was a Jew, because he was the son of Jewish mother, but because he was uncircumcised he was technically an apostate Jew. If Paul wished to maintain his links with the synagogue, he could not be seen to countenance apostasy. (Bruce)
Acts 16:4
Delivering the decrees - What decrees? The decrees which had been drawn up by the apostles and elders at Jerusalem which can be summarized (1) that salvation is by faith alone (God cleansed the Gentiles "hearts by faith." Acts 15:9) and does require circumcision or law-keeping, (2) that sexual immorality was forbidden for all believers for all time and (3) that meats offered to idols, from animals that had been strangled, and blood were all forbidden as food, not as matters essential to salvation, but to facilitate fellowship between Jewish and Gentile believers. Some of these instructions were revised 1 Cor. 8-10; 1 Ti 4:4, 5).
Acts 16:5
The churches (ekklesia from ek = out + kaleo = call) is literally the "called-out ones". Greeks used ekklesia for an assembly of citizens "called out" to transact city business. The church is not an organization but a living organism, Christ's body, composed of individual members (believers) joined together and in and through which Christ, the Head works, carries out His purposes and lives. These churches were composed of men and women who had received and believed the gospel Paul and Barnabas had proclaimed on the First Missionary Journey.
Strengthened (stereoo from stereos = solid, stable. Stereoo is used 3 times in the NT all in Acts ( Acts 3:7, 3:16, 16:5) means literally to make strong, stable, firm and figuratively to solidify, confirm or establish in the faith (cf see note 1Thessalonians 3:2 - sterizo)
The faith speaking of the Christian profession, the faith professed.
Increasing (4052) (perisseuo from perissós = abundant) means caused to superabound, to overflow, to be in affluence, to excel or to be in abundance with the implication of being considerably more than what would be expected.
Perisseuo carries the idea of exceeding the requirements, of overflowing or overdoing. It means to exceed a fixed number of measure, to be left over and above a certain number or measure. It means to have or to be more than enough, to be extremely rich or abundant. To exceed or remain over (as used in loaves left over after feeding the 5000 [Mt 14:20]! When Jesus supplies there is more than enough so that some is even left over! How quick we are to forget this basic principle!) The idea is to overflow like a river out of its banks!
Perisseuo is used 3 times in Paul's first letter to the Thessalonians and in two instances is translated "excel" (see notes ) referring not so much to growth in numbers but in their walk of faith (see notes 1Thessalonians 3:12; 4:1, 4:10)
Number (arithmos) The result was fruit from the witness of the believers so that the churches increased in number daily. We see a similar principle in Acts 2...
(The church was) praising God, and having favor with all the people. And the Lord was adding to their number day by day those who were being saved. (Acts 2:47).
Principle - strong (Biblically sound) churches will naturally increase in number daily, without relying on carnal, seeker oriented or manipulative ways. Sound expository preaching that matures believers in solid food (see note Hebrews 5:14) will build a strong church and God will add His people to an edifying, equipping body of believers.
Acts 16:6
Forbidden (Hindered, prevented) (2967) (koluo from kólos = docked, lopped, clipped, kolazo = curtail) means to cut off, to cut short, to weaken and generally to hinder, to prevent, to check, to restrain or to forbid by word or act. The idea is to cause something not to happen. To hinder means to make slow or difficult the progress of something by interfering in some way with the activity or progress thereof. In short koluo means to make it difficult for someone to do something or for something to happen.
At times the Spirit says no so He can lead us to a greater ministry for Jesus. How He forbade Paul, Silas and Timothy is not specifically stated.
In Asia - Asia was an important region and there would later be churches in such cities as Ephesus, Smyrna, Philadelphia, Laodicea, Colossae, Sardis, Pergamum, and Thyatira but for now Paul was forbidden to speak there.
F B Meyer writes
Each believer has an appointed place in the great army of God. It is indicated by the voice of God, and by the circumstances of our life; and it should be jealously retained. Repeatedly the Apostle bade his converts abide in the calling wherein they were called. Yours may be towards the bleak north of difficulty, or the warm south of privilege — in the home, the country parish, or the difficult foreign post. But, on the whole, you should stay where you are; unless the Captain of our salvation moves you by some unmistakable indication of his will. The apostle Paul ever lived in such dependence on the Holy Spirit for guidance, and for the unfolding of the Divine purpose, that from some apparently trivial circumstance he would “gather” the movements of the pillar of cloud by day, and of fire by night. And interval there was none between his apprehension of the Divine purpose and his endeavor to strike his tent and follow wherever it might lead (Acts 16:6–7). (Meyer, F. B. Our Daily Homily)
Acts 16:7
The Spirit of Jesus did not permit them - Paul, beautifully responsive to the Holy Spirit, is willing to lay down his will and plans for the direction that the Holy Spirit brings. Paul is being guided by hindrance. The Holy Spirit guides as much by the closing of doors as He does by the opening of doors.
Acts 16:6-7 both clearly demonstrate the superintendence and guidance of the Holy Spirit in missionary strategy.
Charles Ryrie writes that...
Asia needed the Gospel, but this was not God's time. Need did not constitute their call. They had just come from the east; they had been forbidden to go south or north, but they did not presume that the Lord was leading them to the west --they waited His specific directions. Logic alone is not the basis for a call.
Discerning God's Will - move ahead and allow Him to close doors until the right opportunity presents itself.
The Lord's calling may become evident in different ways. One key principle is indicated here in the calling of Paul to Macedonia in Greece. Paul was already active, trying to preach in the province of Asia, then in Bithynia. He was not waiting idly at home, hoping to receive a call. The Holy Spirit in some very clear way closed the first two doors, but then opened another by this special vision. It is sobering to think that if Paul had not been redirected to Philippi and Greece, he might never have gone into Europe and Christianity might have remained primarily an Asian religion. But God had other purposes.
MacDonald summarizes how the early believers discerned the will of God and His guidance writing...
1. Through the Scriptures.
2. Through visions and prophecies.
3. Through circumstances.
4. Through the advice and initiative of other Christians.
5. Through direct communication, possibly in an inward, subjective manner. (MacDonald, W & Farstad, A. Believer's Bible Commentary: Thomas Nelson or Logos)
George Muller's (see bio) thoughts on finding the will of God...
1. Surrender your own will
I seek at the beginning to get my heart into such a state that it has no will of its own in regard to a given matter. Nine-tenths of the trouble with people generally is just here. Nine-tenths of the difficulties are overcome when our hearts are ready to do the Lord's will, whatever it may be. When one is truly in this state it is usually but a little way to the knowledge of what His will is.
2. Do not depend on feelings.
Having done this, I do not leave the result to feeling or simple impression. If so, I make myself liable to great elusions.
3. Seek, the Spirit's will through God's Word.
I seek the will of the Spirit of God through, or in connection with, the Word of God. The Spirit and the Word must be combined. If I look to the Spirit alone without the Word, I lay myself open to great delusion also. If the Holy Ghost guides us at all, He will do it according to the Scriptures and never contrary to them.
4. Note providential circumstances.
Next I take into account providential circumstances. These often plainly indicate God's will in connection with His Word and Spirit.
5. Pray.
I ask God in prayer to reveal His will to me aright.
6. Wait.
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F B Meyer - THE GUIDANCE OF THE HOLY SPIRIT Acts 16:7-10.
THE SPIRIT of Jesus often shuts doors in the long corridors of life. We pass along, trying one after another, but find that they are all locked, in order that we may enter the one that He has opened for us (Rev 3:7-8). Sometimes in following the Spirit's guidance we seem to come to a blank wall. The little missionary band found themselves facing the sea. They had not contemplated crossing to Europe, but there seemed no other course open. They walked to and fro on the sea-wall or landing-stage, looking over the restless waves, and noticing the strange costumes of sailors and travellers who had gathered in the thriving sea-port, which bore the name famous to all the world for the Siege of Troy.
It was with such thoughts in his heart that St. Paul slept that night in his humble lodging, and in his dreams, a man from Macedonia, like one he had seen on the quay, stood and beckoned to him (Acts 16:10, R.V.).
Where it is possible for the judgment to arrive at a right conclusion, on the suggestions that may be supplied by the Divine Spirit, we are left to think out the problems of our career. Within your reach are the materials needed for formulating a correct judgment; use them, balance the pros and cons, and looking up to God to prevent you from making a mistake, act. When once you have come to a decision, in faith and prayer, go forward, not doubting or looking back.
A small door may lead to a vast opportunity. St. Paul might have been discouraged by his reception in Europe. He looked for the man whom he had seen in the vision, but the only trace they could find of the worship of God was the gathering together of a few women. How startled they must have been by the sudden appearance of these missionaries, but a mighty work for God began in the life of at least one of them "whose heart the Lord opened." Let us not despise the smallest opening, for we can never tell into what a wide place it may conduct us.
PRAYER - O God, since we know not what a day may bring forth, but only that the hour for serving Thee is always present, may we wake to the instant claims of Thy holy Will; not waiting for to-morrow, but yielding today. Consecrate with Thy presence the way our feet may go; and the humblest work will shine, and the roughest places be made plain. AMEN. (Our Daily Walk)
F. B. Meyer in his book Paul A Servant of Jesus Christ writes...
It is interesting to study the method of his guidance as it was extended towards these early heralds of the Cross. It consisted largely in prohibitions, when they attempted to take another course than the right. When they would turn to the left, to Asia, He stayed them; and when they sought to turn to the right, to Bithynia, again He stayed them. He shut all the doors along their route, and bolted them; so that they had no alternative but to go straight forward. In the absence of any prohibition, they were left to gather that they were treading the prepared path for which they had been created in Christ Jesus.
Whenever you are doubtful as to your course, submit your judgment absolutely to the Spirit of God, and ask Him to shut against you every door but the right one. Say, "Blessed Spirit, I cast on Thee the entire responsibility of closing against my steps any and every course which is not of God. Let me hear thy voice behind me whenever I turn to the right hand or the left. Put thine arrest on me. Do not suffer me."
In the meanwhile, continue along the path which you have been already treading. It lies in front of you; pursue it. Abide in the calling in which you were called. Keep on as you are, unless you are clearly told to do something else. Expect to have as clear a door out as you had in; and if there is no indication to the contrary, consider the absence of indication to be the indication of God's will that you are on his track.
The Spirit of Jesus waits to be to you, O pilgrim, what He was to Paul. Only be careful to obey his least prohibitions, and where, after believing prayer, there are no apparent hindrances, believe that you are on the way everlasting, and go forward with enlarged heart. "Teach me to do thy will, for Thou art my God: thy Spirit is good, lead me into the land of uprightness." Do not be surprised if the answer comes in closed doors. But when doors are shut right and left, an open road is sure to lead to Troas. There Luke awaits, and visions will point the way, where vast opportunities stand open, and faithful friends are waiting.
Acts 16:9
Although the man of Macedonia represented all the culture, intelligence, religion, and achievements of Greek civilization, he was spiritually bankrupt. Here the Gospel turns to Europe. So after two "no's", then a "go".
Guzik writes that...
God still calls people to the mission field. Perhaps many today will encounter a "Macedonia man" who will call them out to the mission field. Would to God that those who hear a "Macedonian man" today will respond the way Paul and his team responded!
Help (997) (boetheo from boé = a cry, exclamation + theo = to run) (Click for study on boetheo) means to run on hearing a cry, to give assistance. Boethéo means to succor (KJV says God "is able to succour them that are tempted" - see note Hebrews 2:18) which is a word you may not be too familiar with, but which means literally to run to or run to support hence, to help or relieve when in difficulty, want or distress; to assist and deliver from suffering; as, to succor a besieged city; to succor prisoners. (succor is derived from Latin succurrere = to run up, run to help, from sub- = up + currere to run).
The greatest help we can bring anyone is the life-changing gospel of Jesus Christ! It is good for us to bring help (social, medical needs, etc) but without the life changing gospel of Christ, what help of eternal value have you given them?
George MacDonald wrote that...
Nothing makes a man strong like a call for help
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Our Daily Bread - THE MAN FROM MACEDONIA - Acts 16:9
When the apostle Paul saw in a vision the man from Macedonia, it changed the history of the world. Heeding the man's plea to "come over to Macedonia," Paul altered his plans. It was in Macedonia he led Lydia to the Lord, and it was there that the evangelization of the Western world began.
All Christians should be on the lookout for "the man from Macedonia." That man or woman may be well-educated, or have no education at all. He may drive an expensive car, or he may be poor and eke out a living ransacking garbage cans. He may live next door, down the street, or across the sea. He may speak a different language. But wherever you find him, and whatever his situation, he has one pressing need -- to know Jesus Christ as his Savior.
Sometimes that need is expressed as a cry for help. At other times it is veiled in bitter hostility to the Savior and the gospel. Many times his sins and errors and crimes announce this desperate condition. Yet despite the thousand different ways he voices that need, the plea is always the same: "Come over...and help us" (Acts 16:9).
Sooner or later someone will call out to you for help. Will you be quick to answer?-- Haddon W. Robinson
O stir me, O stir me, Lord, till all my heart
Is filled with compassion for those who are lost,
Until Your compelling love drives me to pray
And follow Your leading, not counting the cost.-- Anon
If you've accepted Christ's invitation to come,
have you obeyed his commission to go?
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Acts 16:10
The first use here of we in the narrative, instead of "they," seems to indicate that Luke, the author of the book of Acts, joined the missionary party at Troas. Then after Paul and Silas and Timothy left Philippi, Luke changed the pronoun from we to they in Acts 17:1, which suggests that he remained behind in Philippi to watch over the infant church after Paul left.
God wanted Paul and his team to go to Troas and pick up a doctor named Luke. If God wouldn't have said "no" to Paul two times, we might not have a gospel and a Book of Acts written by Luke!
It was some six to seven years later when Luke rejoined Paul...
But these had gone on ahead and were waiting for us at Troas. (Acts 20:5 )
Finally, in the third we section, Luke is with Paul has they sail for Italy ...
And when it was decided that we should sail for Italy, they proceeded to deliver Paul and some other prisoners to a centurion of the Augustan cohort named Julius. (Acts 27:1)
Concluding (sumbibazo from sun = union + bibazo = to force) means to cause to come together, to bring together, to join together. It is used more literally and in a physical sense in (see notes Ephesians 4:16, cf Colossians 2:2 "knit together").
How did the facts "come together" and allow them to arrive at a conclusion? Two "no's" plus one "vision" added up to a directive to preach the gospel (to "help" cf Acts 16:9)
A T Robertson adds that sumbibazo is...
A very striking word, present active participle of sumbibazo, old verb to make go together, to coalesce or knit together, to make this and that agree and so to conclude. Already in Acts 9:22 of Paul’s preaching. This word here gives a good illustration of the proper use of the reason in connection with revelation, to decide whether it is a revelation from God, to find out what it means for us, and to see that we obey the revelation when understood. God had called them to preach to the Macedonians. They had to go.
Acts 16:11
A straight course to Samothrace - This phrase is a nautical term which means "sailing before the wind".
They anchored for a night at Samothrace.
From the continent of Asia, to the continent of Europe. From Troas to Neapolis, the port of Philippi was a distance of about 150 miles, and it took them two days to make the journey. Later, the trip in the opposite direction would take five days, apparently because of contrary winds, Luke recording...
And we sailed from Philippi after the days of Unleavened Bread, and came to them at Troas within five days; and there we stayed seven days. (Acts 20:6).
The wisdom and greatness of God's sovereign plan of salvation begins to unfold. In Paul's mind as he traveled through Asia and tried to enter Bithynia, he sought to reach a few of the cities in this region. On the other hand, God had a much bigger plan for He wanted Paul to reach a continent for Jesus Christ!
Neapolis some 120 miles from Troas was the seaport for Philippi which was located about 10 miles inland as one treks along the Via Egnatia (picture of road upon which Paul probably entered Philippi). This paved road extended some 530 miles from Dyrrachium (Modern day Albania) on the Adriatic coast across Macedonia to Neapolis on the Aegean Sea, traversing through major metropolitan centers such as Thessalonica.
Acts 16:12
Roman colony was like a piece of Rome transplanted abroad so that those who held citizenship in a colony enjoyed the same rights they would have had if they had lived in Italy. Other colonies mentioned in Acts are Pisidian Antioch, Lystra, Troas, Ptolemais, and Corinth.
Wiersbe adds that...
Philippi was a Roman colony, which meant that it was a "Rome away from Rome." The emperor organized "colonies" by ordering Roman citizens, especially retired military people, to live in selected places so there would be strong pro-Roman cities in these strategic areas. Though living on foreign soil, the citizens were expected to be loyal to Rome, to obey the laws of Rome, and to give honor to the Roman emperor. In return, they were given certain political privileges, not the least of which was exemption from taxes. This was their reward for leaving their homes in Italy and relocating elsewhere. (Wiersbe, W: Bible Exposition Commentary. 1989. Victor or Logos)
Acts 16:13
Sabbath - (sabbaton from shabath - H7676 = to cease from work, intermission) Jewish Sabbath was the 7th day of week and was kept originally by a total cessation from all labor as even the kindling of a fire, but apparently without any public solemnities except an addition to the daily sacrifice in the tabernacle and the changing of the shewbread (Ex 20:8, 31:13; Lv 24:8; Nu 15:32, 28:9). The custom of reading the Scriptures in public assemblies and synagogues appears to have been introduced after the exile (cf. Neh 8; Lu 4:16).
Christians are to do what the New Testament says. Jesus fulfilled the ceremonial, sacrificial part of the Old Testament law when He died on the cross (Hebrews 10). He told Peter that the dietary laws no longer applied to the church (Acts 10). True believers keep the moral part of God’s laws as they live by His Spirit (see notes Romans 8).
The sabbath was a sign between the Lord and the nation of Israel—the sign of the Old Covenant (the Law)—that they might know He is the Lord Who sanctifies them, sets them apart. Israel was to observe the sabbath because it was holy, set apart, for them. The one who profaned the sabbath, did not treat it as holy, was put to death. The sabbath, the seventh day, was to be a day of complete rest. Israel was to keep it throughout their generations as a perpetual covenant.
But after the captivity arose the school of the Pharisees, and by them the attractive character of the Sabbatical observances was destroyed. In place of the joy, they imposed upon the people the yoke of a scrupulous, slavish sabbatarianism which made the Sabbath an END instead of a MEANS, hampered the spirit of true worship, and laid greater stress upon a punctilious obedience to mere human regulations than upon God's commands in the Law. Some of the ridiculous prohibitions were as follows: walking in the grass on the Sabbath because its bruising effect would constitute a kind of threshing; wearing nailed shoes because they would be viewed as carrying a burden. It was against this perversion of the commandment that the Lord protested. He refused to sanction Pharisaical legalism and vigorously defended His Sabbath miracles.
Jesus kept the Sabbath in the highest sense of the term. He observed every jot and tittle of the Mosaic Law in the freedom of the spirit. He taught us that acts of necessity and mercy are to be performed always, even on the Sabbath, and worldly occupations are to be put as far as possible out of our thoughts. In the Christian church the first day of the week has been substituted for the last day as a day of worship and rest. This, however, is in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ.
We went outside the gate to a riverside, where we were supposing that there would be a place of prayer - Paul normally went first to a local synagogue when he arrived in a new city, but apparently there was none in Philippi. Ten Jewish men who were heads of there household was required to constitute a synagogue, suggesting that Philippi must have had a small Jewish population.
The only religious activity on the weekly Sabbath was apparently the ladies' prayer meeting, so that was where Paul headed. This gathering became the nucleus of the first Christian church in Europe.
Wiersbe quips...
Paul had seen a man in the vision at Troas, but here he was ministering to a group of women! 'It is better that the words of the Law be burned than be delivered to a woman!" said the rabbis; but that was no longer Paul's philosophy. He had been obedient and the Lord had gone before to prepare the way. (Wiersbe, W: Bible Exposition Commentary. 1989. Victor or Logos)
Bruce adds that...
Had there been ten Jewish men, they would have sufficed to constitute a synagogue. No number of women would compensate for the absence of even one man necessary to make up the quorum of ten.
Acts 16:14
AND A CERTAIN WOMAN NAMED LYDIA: kai tis gune onomati Lydia: The first European Christian!
She may have been named after the land, though Lydia is a common female name. Lydia was itself a Macedonian colony. When Paul wrote the Philippians he did not mention Lydia who may have died meanwhile and who certainly was not Paul's wife.
FROM THE CITY OF THYATIRA A SELLER OF PURPLE FABRICS: porphuropolis poleos Thuateiron:
Thyatira (plural form like Philippi) was famous for its purple dyes as old as Homer (Iliad) and had a guild of dyers as inscriptions show. There was a great demand for purple fabric as it was used on the official toga at Rome and in Roman colonies.
A WORSHIPER OF GOD: sebomene (PMPFSN) ton theon:
Like Cornelius (Acts 10:2), she was a God-fearer or Gentile but was not a full Jewish proselyte. Nevertheless she openly worshiped with the Jews and clearly she was seeking truth.
WAS LISTENING: ekouen (3SIAI):
The imperfect tense pictures her as listening, really listening and she kept it up, listening to each of these new and strange preachers.
AND THE LORD OPENED HER HEART: es o kurios dienoixen (3SAAI) ten kardian:
The Lord thoroughly, totally opened her mind by dividing the mind was was previously closed and causing her to understand spiritual truths otherwise hidden to the natural mind. Lu 24:31, 45.
Repentance is a gift to undeserving sinners granted by a merciful, kind God [Ro 2:4 Acts 5:31 11:18]
This verse is clear proof of the sovereignty of God in salvation.
When Lydia heard the gospel, the Lord opened her heart and she believed--another example where divine election and human responsibility are naturally juxtaposed.
This is a work God must do in all who believe, because as Jesus said,
No one can come to Me, unless the Father who sent Me draws him; and I will raise him up on the last day. (John 6:44).
TO RESPOND TO THE THINGS SPOKEN BY PAUL: prosechein (PAN) tois laloumenois (PPPNPD) hupo tou Paulou:
Respond is an interesting Greek picture - to continually hold her mind toward. She kept her mind centered on the things spoken by Paul whose words gripped her attention.
Spoken is not the word for official proclamation but here pictures a more personal conversation (rather than a sermon).
The Spirit of God used Paul as a vessel to win the heart of this woman to Christ. It is important to note that it was the Word which brought the sinner Lydia to the Savior Christ Jesus.
Truly, truly, I say to you, he who hears My word, and believes Him who sent Me, has eternal life, and does not come into judgment, but has passed out of death into life. (John 5:24)
This event in which we see the power of God's word working in Lydia who believed is a beautiful illustration of 1Thessalonians 2:13; 2:14 (note).
An interesting observation is that here we see one solitary convert, a woman, already a seeker after God, and a native of the very area where they had been forbidden to preach! God's ways are so much higher than our ways. A new era had dawned for Europe and for women in the conversion of Lydia. PTL Who Alone can opened closed hearts.
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C H Spurgeon - Morning and Evening - In Lydia’s conversion there are many points of interest. It was brought about by providential circumstances. She was a seller of purple, of the city of Thyatira, but just at the right time for hearing Paul we find her at Philippi; providence, which is the handmaid of grace, led her to the right spot. Again, grace was preparing her soul for the blessing—grace preparing for grace. She did not know the Saviour, but as a Jewess (Ed note: most commentators feel she was not Jewish but was a Gentile seeker of God), she knew many truths which were excellent stepping-stones to a knowledge of Jesus. Her conversion took place in the use of the means. On the Sabbath she went when prayer was wont to be made, and there prayer was heard. Never neglect the means of grace; God may bless us when we are not in his house, but we have the greater reason to hope that he will when we are in communion with his saints.
Observe the words, “Whose heart the Lord opened.” She did not open her own heart. Her prayers did not do it; Paul did not do it. The Lord himself must open the heart, to receive the things which make for our peace. He alone can put the key into the hole of the door and open it, and get admittance for himself. He is the heart’s master as he is the heart’s maker.
The first outward evidence of the opened heart was obedience. As soon as Lydia had believed in Jesus, she was baptized. It is a sweet sign of a humble and broken heart, when the child of God is willing to obey a command which is not essential to his salvation, which is not forced upon him by a selfish fear of condemnation, but is a simple act of obedience and of communion with his Master.
The next evidence was love, manifesting itself in acts of grateful kindness to the apostles. Love to the saints has ever been a mark of the true convert. Those who do nothing for Christ or his church, give but sorry evidence of an “opened” heart. Lord, evermore give me an opened heart. (Morning and Evening - Evening Devotional, December 10)
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F B Meyer writes...Acts 16:14, 27 - A certain woman named Lydia…. The Keeper of the prison.
These are typical cases, put here in juxtaposition for the teaching and comfort of believers in every age. Each of them needed Christ, and each was brought into his true light; but each came in a different way. Lydia’s heart opened as a flower beneath the touch of the sun, so gradually and imperceptibly that it was impossible to say the precise moment of her new life. The jailer came to Christ suddenly, startlingly, amid the crash of an earthquake. The one was drawn by love; the other driven by fear. A distinguished missionary says, “The Lord awakened me with a kiss” — it was so that Lydia’s heart was won. Another tells us that the Lord sprang on him like a lion — it was thus with the jailer.
Lydia. — Do not always be looking out for signs and manifestations, for marked experiences. We do not notice the lines of longitude and latitude as we cross the ocean of life. Without knowing it, your character may be in the process of transfiguration. By insensible gradations the work of God may be proceeding in your heart. The tide is rising daily by tiny wavelets that appear to recede as fast as they advance. Do not measure progress by experiences; only be yielded to God, and let Him do his will.
The Jailer. — Do not undervalue the influence of fear. There are some natures that never will be awakened unless they are startled by being brought face to face with the consequences of sin. If men will not come by the highest motives, be thankful that they come by any. Remember it is not belief about Christ, about his death or resurrection, but trust in Him as a living Person, that saves from the power and penalty of sin. “Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ.” He is a living Person. Trust Him now. (Meyer, F. B. Our Daily Homily).
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Acts 16:15
And her household - see similar descriptions of the household (John 4:53; Acts 11:14)
Lydia's household apparently consisted of her servants. There is no indication that she was either married or a widow.
Note two evidences of her conversion - She boldly identified herself with Christ by being baptized, and she insisted that the missionaries stay at her house. Clearly Lydia was not saved by her good works, but she was saved for good works (see note Ephesians 2:10).
Acts 16:16
And it happened - More literally "And it came into being"
Wiersbe gives us a sage warning...
No sooner are lost people saved than Satan begins to hinder the work. In this case, he used a demonized girl who had made her masters wealthy by telling fortunes. (Wiersbe, W: Bible Exposition Commentary. 1989. Victor or Logos)
Spirit of divination - is literally spirit of python.
Divination (puthon/python) in Greek mythology was the serpent that guarded the oracle of Delphi, lived at the foot of Mt. Parnassus, and was slain by Apollo. Later puthon/python came to designate a spirit of divination, then also of ventriloquists, who were believed to have such a spirit dwelling in their belly. About A.D. 50-100, Plutarch maintained that the term puthognes applied to ventriloquists, and earlier in the LXX those having demonic spirits were called ventriloquists (Lev. 19:31; 20:6, 27; including the witch of En Dor in 1 Sam. 28:7).
TDNT adds that...
Python/puthon is the name of the snake that guards the Delphic oracle, and it is also used from the early imperial period for a ventriloquist, through whom, as many think, a god is supposed to speak, and who is thus regarded as a soothsayer. How python comes to be equated with engastrimythos, the ventriloquist, is not certain. (Kittel, G., Friedrich, G., & Bromiley, G. W. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Eerdmans)
Acts 16:17
The Most High God - El Elyon, a name that connotes His sovereign control over all history. (See study El Elyon: Most High God - Sovereign Over All)
The continual harangue by the girl, referring to "the most high God," designed to produce ridicule and resentment against Paul, showed that her "spirit of divination" was actually a demonic spirit. Compare the experience of Jesus, whom they recognized as God, with such evil spirits (Mt 8:31,32 Mk 1:24,34).
Acts 16:18
Annoyed (diaponeo from dia = through or as intensifier + poneo = to labor from ponos = toil or pain) means literally to labor through, to work out with labor or to produce with labor. Figuratively, it means to feel burdened as the result of someone’s provocative activity, be greatly disturbed, or to be annoyed. To be grieved or to become wearied or grieved at the continuance of anything (Acts 4:2; 16:18). The slave girl with demonic spirit "wore Paul out".
Paul did not want either the Gospel or the name of God to be promoted by demons. Satan is a liar and will use truth one minute but in the next minute will speak a lie and the unsaved listener would not know the difference.
Jesus commanded the demons not to speak of Him...
The ability to cast out demons was a special ability of Christs apostles...
and to have authority to cast out the demons. (Mark 3:15).
Acts 16:19
But when her masters saw that their hope of profit was gone - They did not care for the girl but the money she brought in. This conflict between the gospel and money comes up repeatedly in Acts (see Acts 5:1-11, 8:18-24, 20:33-34).
In Ephesus, we see a similar conflict between Paul and the worshippers of the false idol Artemis, as the gospel had begun to negatively impact the sale of the lifeless shrines of Artemis. Luke records...
Acts 19:25-26 these he gathered together with the workmen of similar trades, and said, "Men, you know that our prosperity depends upon this business. And you see and hear that not only in Ephesus, but in almost all of Asia, this Paul has persuaded and turned away a considerable number of people, saying that gods made with hands are no gods at all.
Mark 5:16-17 And those who had seen it described to them how it had happened to the demon possessed man, and all about the swine. And they began to entreat Him to depart from their region. (Comment: They did not care that the man was set free from the demon, but that their profit was gone.)
Hope (1680) (elpis) is used usually in Scripture to refer to an absolute certainty of future good (as the blessed hope of the Lord's sure return in Titus 2:13 - see note). However in this verse hope is used as it is by the secular world conveying the sense of "I hope so".
Profit (ergasia from ergázomai = to toil, work) refers here to their work in the sense of their business or trade (they "traded" in fortune telling) and in the sense of that which brings gain or income. (See this nuance in Acts 16:16, 19; Acts 19:24).
Seized (epilambanomai from epí = upon + lambáno = to take) means to make the motion of grasping or taking hold of something. To lay hold of or to seize upon anything with the hands, to take hold of or grasp, with focus upon the goal of motion seize for help, injury, attainment or any other purpose, catch, lay hold upon, take hold of.
Market place (agora) is the town-square where the people assembled in public. It can also refer to a market or thoroughfare or a broad street. Here it refers to a forum or a market place where things were exposed for sale and where assemblies and public trials were held (See similar use in Mk 7:4; Acts 16:19; 17:17)
Acts 16:20
Judaism was not a prohibited religion (the cult of the emperor being the official religion), but propagating it was regarded as a menace. Paul and Silas were regarded as Jews, since, at this time, the Romans considered Christianity to be a Jewish sect.
MacArthur adds this note...
Anti-Semitism was alive even then. The Emperor Claudius issued an order around that time expelling the Jews from Rome (Acts 18:2). This may explain why they apprehended only Paul and Silas, since Luke was a Gentile and Timothy half-Gentile. (MacArthur, J.: The MacArthur Study Bible Nashville: Word or Logos)
Acts 16:21
In the Roman Empire, there were two very different laws: one for citizens of the Roman Empire, and one for those who were not citizens. Roman citizens had specific civil rights which were zealously guarded. Non-citizens had no civil rights, and were subject to the whims of both the multitude and the magistrates.
Bruce comments that...
There was great indignation that Roman citizens should be molested by strolling peddlers of an outlandish religion. Such people had to be taught to know their proper place and not trouble their betters.
Acts 16:22
Rose up (sunephistemi from sún = together + ephistemi = stand upon, be at hand, stand before, by or over) means to join in an uprising or join in an attack. Here Luke adds the preposition katá which means against so the idea is that the crowd made an assault together against them. This same verb describes the assembly rises up against Moses also the servant of the Lord...
And they assembled together against Moses and Aaron, and said to them, "You have gone far enough, for all the congregation are holy, every one of them, and the LORD is in their midst; so why do you exalt yourselves above the assembly of the LORD?" (Nu 16:3)
The chief magistrates tore their robes off them - Moved by the incited crowd and the false accusations, the magistrates acted rashly and did not investigate the matter fully as they should have. Their neglect later brought them embarrassment for it was imprison Roman citizens without a trial (and Paul was a Roman citizen).
Chief magistrates (strategos from stratos = an army + ágo = to lead) referred to the highest official in a Greco-Roman city. In other contexts strategos was used to describe a commander responsible for the temple in Jerusalem or captain of the temple (see Acts 4:1, 5:24). More generally it referred to the leader or commander of an army such as a general.
Every Roman colony had two of these men serving as judges. In this case, they did not uphold Roman justice: They did not investigate the charges, conduct a proper hearing, or give Paul and Silas the chance to defend themselves.
Tore off (perirrhegnumi from perí = about + rhegnumi = to break, tear) means literally to tear from around someone, as tearing off fetters or stripping off ones robe by tearing. This verb is used in the NT only of garments of Paul and Silas as the crowd tore off their clothes preparing them to be scourged. The Roman custom was to allow officers to tear off the clothes of criminals before being scourged.
Beaten with rods (rhabdizo from rhabdos = rod for scourging) means to beat with a rod or stick and in the NT is used only of Roman punishment by scourging. This punishment was referred to by the Latin term fustigatio and was distinguished from catigatio (a lashing) and verberatio (flogging with chains). As Paul records (see below) this punishment was inflicted on his body on three separate occasions although this is the only one the NT specifically records in detail.
It is interesting that in the Septuagint, rhabdizo is used of threshing wheat to remove the chaff from the grain...
So she gleaned in the field until evening. Then she beat out what she had gleaned, and it was about an ephah of barley. (see note Ruth 2:17)
Then the angel of the LORD came and sat under the oak that was in Ophrah, which belonged to Joash the Abiezrite as his son Gideon was beating out wheat in the wine press in order to save it from the Midianites. (see note Judges 6:11)
The magistrates proceeded to order them to be beaten with rods - In Jewish legal tradition, there was a maximum number of blows that could be delivered when beating a person, but the Romans had no such limit. We can rest assured Paul and Silas were severely beaten.
Paul alluded to this (and possibly other similar events) as he defended his ministry to the saints at Corinth asking...
Are they (false apostles, deceitful workers who were disguising themselves as apostles of Christ) servants of Christ? (I speak as if insane) I more so; in far more labors, in far more imprisonments, beaten times without number, often in danger of death. 24 Five times I received from the Jews thirty-nine lashes. 25 Three times I was beaten with rods, once I was stoned, three times I was shipwrecked, a night and a day I have spent in the deep. (2 Corinthians 11:23-25)
Later in Acts Paul does in fact appeal to his Roman citizenship, once to avoid being scourged (Acts 22:25-29) and another time to force the officials to send him to Rome as he appealed to Caesar (Acts 25:11-12) Festus' suggestion that Paul appear in Jerusalem for trial (Acts 25:9) provoked his appeal to Caesar for he realized that the trial would not be impartial especially in Jerusalem, and that he would be in great danger if he was returned to the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin. The right of appeal was one of the most ancient and cherished rights of a Roman citizen. And to whom ultimately did Paul appeal? To the infamous, nefarious Nero who was emperor at that time (A.D. 54-68)!
Acts 16:23
They threw them into prison - This event might at first glance seem to signal the end of Paul's ministry in Philippi, but in God's providence it would not be so but would lead to another conversion. God's ways are always higher than our ways. Dear believer, are you in a "dungeon" because of your witness? Take heart from the example of Paul and Silas and by the power of the Spirit, rejoice. And again I say rejoice in the Lord. Rejoice always, pray without ceasing and give thanks for all things (see notes 1Thess 5:16; 17; 18)
Paul alludes to these hindrances to sharing the gospel in his letter to the Thessalonians writing that...
after we had already suffered and been mistreated in Philippi, as you know, we had the boldness in our God to speak to you the gospel of God amid much opposition. (see note 1Thessalonians 2:2)
It is fascinating that here in Acts 16:23 we find the very one who had been throwing Christians into jail, now in jail himself. Luke records...
But Saul (later Paul) began ravaging the church, entering house after house; and dragging off men and women, he would put them in prison. (Acts 8:3)
Acts 16:24
Bruce commenting on the stocks writes that...
These stocks had more than two holes for legs, which could thus be forced apart in a such a way as to cause the utmost discomfort and cramping pain. (Bruce)
Stocks (xulon) means wood and in some contexts refers to a cross (Acts 5:30, 10:39, 13:29, 1Peter 2:24). In this context xulon describes an instrument that secured the feet (and sometimes the neck and hands) of a prisoner. Stocks were usually constructed of wood with holes to secure the feet. They could also be used as an instrument of torture by stretching the legs apart and causing the prisoner to sit in unnatural positions. The Romans often added chains along with the stocks. Stocks were much used in medieval and later times in the persecution of Christians.
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Our Daily Bread - "LED" INTO PRISON - In a vision, Paul saw a man of Macedonia who said, "Come over . . . and help us." Assured that the Lord Himself had thus called him to preach the Gospel in that area, he and Silas — and evidently Dr. Luke — set out at once for their new "mission field." But what a reception they received! The record tells us that the "multitude rose up together against them" and "beat them" and "thrust them into the inner prison, and made their feet fast in the stocks." If they would have reacted like many of us today, Paul would probably have complained, "Well, isn't this just fine: led by God into prison! Here we were obedient to the heavenly vision, and this is our reward!"
Was this Paul's attitude? I should say not! Listen to the story in Acts 16:25: "And at midnight Paul and Silas prayed, and sang praises unto God." Singing in prison! Paul knew that "all things work together for good to them that love God." With the eye of faith he could see some future good, and in that confidence was happy even while enduring severe trial. When the Lord had accomplished His purpose, demonstrated His power, and saved the jailer and his family, then Paul and Silas were commanded to "depart and go in peace."
Sometimes we find ourselves in troubling situations as the result of our service for the Lord. Doing that which we believe to be right and according to His will, we seem to end up in the "prison" of suffering, hardship, and loss, and are tempted to complain, "Lord, is this what I get for my faithfulness?" Then He comes and assures us that He "doeth all things well," and that Romans 8:28 is still in the Book! When all has been accomplished, we shall be able to look back and clearly see His hand and purpose in it all. "Wherefore let them that suffer according to the will of God commit the keeping of their souls to him in well-doing, as unto a faithful Creator" (1 Pet. 4:19).
There's One who will journey beside me,
In weal, nor in woe, will forsake;
And this is my solace and comfort,
"He knoweth the way that I take!" —Anon.
Every lock of sorrow has a key of promise to fit it!
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Our Daily Bread - When Paul and Silas were imprisoned at Philippi and their backs were raw from beatings, they sang hymns (Acts 16:23-25). They chose the bright color of praise instead of the dark colors of depression, bitterness, and despair.
No matter what affliction or crisis we may face, we too can decide how we will respond. With the enablement of the Holy Spirit, we can refuse to paint our lives in the dull gray of grumbling and complaining. Instead, our chosen color can be the azure blue of contentment because God's help is always available. -- Vernon C. Grounds
He gives me joy in place of sorrow;
He gives me love that casts out fear;
He gives me sunshine for my shadow,
And "beauty for ashes" here. -- Crabbe
God chooses what we go through;
we choose how we go through it.
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One of the most important times to sing praise to God is when we feel imprisoned by the circumstances of life. Like the experience of Paul and Silas in the Roman prison, it is often uncanny how prayer and praise open the doors of our lives to new dimensions of opportunity and spiritual power.
Acts 16:25
Praying and singing - Beloved if I were unjustly treated like Paul and Silas, I am afraid that too often my first reaction would be to murmur or dispute the charges (see notes Philippians 2:14; 2:15). However instead of complaining to God or even calling on Him to avenge their unjust treatment (see notes Romans 12:17; 18;19;
20; 21; 1Thessalonians 5:15, 1 Peter 3:9) Paul and Silas prayed and praised God (see notes 1Thess 5:16; 17; 18)
Paul explains how we can have a song in our heart writing to the saints in Colossae...
Let the word of Christ richly dwell (continually) within you, with all wisdom teaching and admonishing one another with psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing with thankfulness in your hearts to God. (see note Colossians 3:16)
And to the saints at Ephesus he wrote...
And do not get drunk with wine, for that is dissipation, but be (continually) filled with the Spirit, 19 speaking to one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody with your heart to the Lord; 20 always giving thanks for all things in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ to God, even the Father (see notes Ephesians 5:18; 19; 20)
How could they have done what is not natural? Clearly they were men so filled with and controlled by the Spirit that He strengthened their inner man to respond not naturally but supernaturally. When you are in pain, the midnight hour is not the easiest time for worship and praise, but we must remember the truth of what God says about Himself...
God gives songs in the night, Elihu declaring...
But no one says, 'Where is God my Maker, Who gives songs in the night" (Job 35:10)
The psalmist whose soul is like a deer panting for the water brooks (Ps 42:1 - Spurgeon note) testifies that...
The LORD will command His lovingkindness in the daytime and His song will be with me in the night, a prayer to the God of my life. (Ps 42:8 - Spurgeon note).
George Müller once said that...
Trials are food for faith to feed on.
Spurgeon quipped...
Any fool can sing in the day. It is easy to sing when we can read the notes by daylight; but the skillful singer is he who can sing when there is not a ray of light to read by.... Songs in the night come only from God; they are not in the power of men." (Amen!)
G Campbell Morgan adds that...
Any man can sing when the prison doors are open, and he is set free. The Christian soul sings in prison. I think that Paul would probably have sung a solo had I been Silas: but I nevertheless see the glory and grandeur of the Spirit that rises superior to all the things of difficulty and limitation.
Dear downcast believer, please remember that the Word of God teaches that prayer and praise are powerful weapons (Read and be encouraged by the illustration of this principle in 2 Chr 20:1-22)
Singing (humneo from húmnos = hymn; English = hymn) means to celebrate or praise with a hymn.
Humnos (hymnos) is a song or hymn in honor of God. The word humnos also came to mean praise to men. Whereas a psalm is the story of man's deliverance or a commemoration of mercies received, a hymn is a magnificat, a declaration of how great someone or something is (Lu 1:46-55, 67-79; Acts 4:24; 16:25). A hymn is a direct address of praise and glory to God. According to Augustine a hymn has three characteristics: It must be sung; it must be praise; it must be to God. The word "hymn" nowhere occurs in the writings of the apostolic fathers because it was used as a praise to heathen deities and thus the early Christians instinctively shrank from it.
The prisoners and the guards undoubtedly heard much about Christ and His saving gospel through the hymns of Paul and Silas, as well as through their testimony of rejoicing in the midst of suffering.
John Stott quips that...
Instead of cursing men, they blessed God.
During Paul's second missionary journey, the apostle and his compatriot, Silas, found their ministry causing a riot, and they felt the brunt of it. Their clothes were torn from them, and they were beaten and thrown into prison. Stress? Yes! Anxiety? Every legitimate reason for it! How did Paul and Silas handle it? What kept them from breaking? Acts 16:25 gives us the answer, "But about midnight Paul and Silas were praying and singing hymns of praise to God." They turned their focus from the present pressures of their lives to the throne of their sovereign Abba Father -- and the tension was relieved.
When sheep become tense, edgy, and restless, the shepherd will quietly move through the flock, and his very presence will release the tension of the sheep and quiet their anxieties. Their shepherd is there! And this is what happens when we begin to worship our God and our Lord in song. We move into a consciousness of His presence, and the tension begins to unravel, the tautness of the pressure eases, anxieties become meaningless, for we are reminded that He is there -- our Jehovah Shamah, our all-sufficient sovereign God. He inhabits the praises of His people.
Songs that stir your soul to worship…songs that bring tears of gratitude to your eyes…spiritual songs and making melody in your heart is God's way of delivering you from the stresses of the world.
Acts 16:26
Suddenly there came a great earthquake - This was no seismological quirk but a genuine miracle, for earthquakes don't cause fetters to drop off of hands and feet! Further there is no evidence that the building itself was demolished. So a most unusual earthquake!
Matthew records a similar even more magnificent opening caused by an earthquake...
And behold, a severe earthquake had occurred, for an angel of the Lord descended from heaven and came and rolled away the stone and sat upon it. 3 And his appearance was like lightning, and his garment as white as snow; 4 and the guards shook for fear of him, and became like dead men. 5 And the angel answered and said to the women, "Do not be afraid; for I know that you are looking for Jesus who has been crucified. 6 "He is not here, for He has risen, just as He said. Come, see the place where He was lying.7 "And go quickly and tell His disciples that He has risen from the dead; and behold, He is going before you into Galilee, there you will see Him; behold, I have told you." (Mt 28:2-7)
John records another notable earthquake (yet future) which marks the midpoint of Daniel's Seventieth Week of Seven Years and the inception of the horrible time for earth called the Great Tribulation...
And in that hour there was a great earthquake, and a tenth of the city fell; and seven thousand people were killed in the earthquake, and the rest were terrified and gave glory to the God of heaven. 14 The second woe is past; behold, the third woe is coming quickly. 15 And the seventh angel sounded; and there arose loud voices in heaven, saying, "The kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of our Lord, and of His Christ; and He will reign forever and ever." (see notes Revelation 11:13; 11:14; 11:15)
Everyone's chains were unfastened - compare to similar supernatural releases from jail in Acts...
But an angel of the Lord during the night opened the gates of the prison, and taking them (Peter and the other apostles) out... (Acts 5:19)
And behold, an angel of the Lord suddenly appeared, and a light shone in the cell; and he struck Peter's side and roused him, saying, "Get up quickly." And his chains fell off his hands. (Acts 12:7)
Acts 16:27
The jailer was about to kill himself - Roman law stated that if a guard lost a prisoner, he was given the same punishment the prisoner would have received. It follows that the jailer knew that there were some men in the prison who had committed capital crimes and were being held for execution. The jailer would rather commit suicide than face shame and execution.
Luke records a similar fate to the guards who had "allowed" Peter to go free from jail...
And when Herod had searched for him and had not found him, he examined the guards and ordered that they be led away to execution (these words are added by the translators but the context justifies this interpretation). And he went down from Judea to Caesarea and was spending time there. (Acts 12:19)
Acts 16:28
Do yourself no harm - How paradoxical that it was the jailer who was the prisoner (spiritually speaking in bondage to sin, self and Satan), not Paul and so Paul not only saved the man's physical life (preventing him from committing suicide), but best of all pointed him to the freedom of an eternal life in Christ.
Guzik comments...
In not escaping, they showed tremendous discernment. The circumstances said, escape. But love said, Stay for the sake of this one soul. They were not guided merely by circumstances, but by what love compelled.
Acts 16:29
Trembling with fear (entromos from en = in + tromos = tremor or terror) means to be terrified, quaking or trembling with extreme fear. It pictures a person in a quivering condition because of exposure to an overwhelming or threatening circumstance.
Fell down before (propipto from pros = preposition expressing motion or direction as toward + pipto = to fall) means literally to fall towards or upon something and as here when referring to people means to fall down to or before someone (cf the healed woman in Luke 8:47, the demons before Jesus in Mk 3:11, Luke 8:28)
Acts 16:30
What must I do? - Is not this the question many ask? What works must I do? How good must I be? And every world religion and cult provides the answer which in one form or another is summed up in the answer you must do "good works" in order to merit heaven (or whatever they refer to as "heaven"). Only Christianity says the work of salvation has already been done by Jesus, the Savior of all mankind but to receive "credit" for His sacrifice in your place, you must receive His free gift by grace through faith (see notes Romans 10:9; 10:10). Trust in the Messiah's finished work on Calvary "Believe in the Lord Jesus and you shall be saved."! That is the answer to all of mankind's deepest need and most profound question.
The story is told of a wealthy man who, although he was outwardly religious, was not a Christian. He had in his employ an old gardener, a true believer, who tried to show him the emptiness of mere religion without Christ. Now it happened that there was one tree on the rich man's estate which never bore any fruit. However, one day as the owner was walking in his orchard, he saw some beautiful apples hanging on it. Imagine his surprise, especially when he went to pick some and found them to be tied on! The gardener by this simple illustration wanted to point out to his employer the difference between real Christianity and pious sham. Religion without Christ is like a barren tree on which the fruit is merely "tied on"!
Have you ever actually trusted Christ, or are you simply going through the motions? Are those so-called "good works" of yours just "tied on," or are they the genuine fruit of a new life?
W. P. Loveless says it well...
The only "works" of unsaved men that will endure in Heaven are the nail prints in Christ's hands!
MacDonald wisely comments that...
This question must precede every genuine case of conversion. A man must know he is lost before he can be saved. It is premature to tell a man how to be saved until first he can say from his heart, I truly deserve to go to hell...Many people today seem to have difficulty knowing what it means to believe. However, when a sinner realizes he is lost, helpless, hopeless, hell-bound, and when he is told to believe on Christ as Lord and Savior, he knows exactly what it means. It is the only thing left that he can do! (MacDonald, W & Farstad, A. Believer's Bible Commentary: Thomas Nelson or Logos)
Salvation comes when a person recognizes their personal state of sinfulness and certain judgment and thus their need for salvation.
David Guzik writes...
This is how God wants our lives to be: Natural magnets drawing people to Him. Our Christianity should make others want what we have with God.
Rome held a jailer responsible for his prisoners, and if any escaped, he forfeited his life. Thus, it is possible that the jailer's question is an expression of concern for his own physical life. However, he doubtless had heard Paul and Silas as they witnessed and sang. Paul, in v28, with a loud voice assured the jailer that his life was not in jeopardy. Significantly, it was after Paul's assurance that no one had escaped that the jailer asked the question.
Arthur Pink writes:
When the Philippian jailer asked “What must I do to be saved?” all the apostle answered was “Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved, and thy house.” Waiving now the fact that that was not the idle inquiry of one who was still in love with the world and taking his fill of its pleasures, but instead the distressed cry of one who was desperate, let it be pointed out that while believing in Christ is a simple and easy act considered in itself, yet it becomes a very hard (see notes on Matthew 7:14 where the way is "narrow" = thlibo = trouble) and difficult thing to us by reason of the opposition made thereto by our inward corruptions and the temptations of Satan.
Morris commenting on the miraculous deliverance of the prisoners writes that...
In such a city as Philippi, so thoroughly committed to pantheistic occultism and so antipathetic to Jewish monotheism, it would take a notable testimonial miracle to provide a breakthrough for the gospel among its Greek citizenry. The jailer immediately recognized that such a miracle had occurred, and that these men were, indeed, as the evil spirit in the damsel had proclaimed, "servants of the Most High God" (Acts 16:16) who could show him "the way of salvation" (Acts 16:16). Hence his question.
Acts 16:31
Believe - Is in the aorist imperative which conveys a sense of urgency = Do this now. These words must be connected with "believe" as well as "be saved."
You and your whole household - Luke is not advocating salvation by proxy. In other words, he is not saying the jailer's salvation automatically included everyone in his house and that they had no need to respond to the Gospel. The fact is that each member of the household had to personally believe in order to be saved. The example of the head of the household made it easier for them, but they, too, needed to believe to be saved, a salvation which they testified to by being baptized.
Guzik observes that in reading this passage...
Some have worried that Paul's invitation to salvation here is too easy, and would promote an easy-believism and a cheap grace. Others refuse to preach repentance, claiming that this text says that it is not necessary. Paul never specifically called the keeper of the prison to repent because he was already repenting. We see the humble repentance of the jailer in that he fell down trembling, in the full idea of the word believe (pistis, which means to trust in, rely on, and cling to), and in the command to believe on the Lord Jesus Christ).
Faith can be summarized in the acrostic
Forsaking
All
I
Take
Him
We are to forsake all (repent of our sins) and to take Him (by faith turn to God for our salvation) (Acts 20:21).
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Our Daily Bread - GOOD QUESTION! -"Sirs, what must I do to be saved?" So they said, "Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and you will be saved."- Acts 16:30-31
Finding the right questions is as crucial as finding the right answers," says devotional writer Henri Nouwen. Yet how easy it is to run ahead of God's Spirit as we talk to nonbelievers about Christ, giving pre-packaged answers before we listen to their questions.
This tendency was highlighted several years ago when someone scrawled the words "Christ is the answer!" on the side of a building. A cynical passerby added these words: "What is the question?"
Paul and Silas, thrown into prison for the gospel's sake, provoked a deep spiritual question in the heart of their jailer. This wasn't achieved, however, by preaching a three-point sermon at him. Instead, they prayed and sang hymns to God. When an earthquake opened the prison doors and broke their chains, the jailer tried to kill himself, fearing that the would be put to death if his prisoners escaped. But Paul and Silas stopped him by choosing to stay in prison for his sake. At this he cried out, "Sirs, what must I do to be saved?" (Acts 16:30).
Today, as then, the Spirit will create the right questions in people's hearts and make them ready for the right answer -- Jesus Christ. -- Joanie E. Yoder
Tell the sweet story of Christ and His love,
Tell of His power to forgive;
Others will trust Him if only you prove
True, every moment you live.-- Wilson
Christians worth their salt
make others thirsty for the water of life.
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Our Daily Bread - THE BIGGEST DECISION -Decisions! Decisions! Decisions! We're constantly making decisions. Some are trivial, like, "Which outfit will I wear today?" Others are life-shaping, like, "Should I take that job and move my family clear across the country?" But common sense tells us that some are vastly more important than others.
A group of doctors ran an ad in a New York newspaper. Over the picture of an attractive woman, the caption read, "The most important decision I ever made was choosing my spouse. The second, my plastic surgeon." The text of the ad then suggested that the order of priorities could be reversed!
Choosing a spouse is immeasurably more important than choosing a plastic surgeon. But deciding to put your
trust in Jesus as your Savior is the most important decision you can make in life.
The apostle Peter told a group of unbelievers about Jesus and encouraged them to turn from their sin and trust Him (Acts 2). Peter's words speak to us today as well. If you haven't accepted Christ's free gift of forgiveness, pray to Him and ask Him to save you. And once you've done that, make the second most important decision: Determine to follow Christ's leading daily. -- Vernon C. Grounds
If you'd like to know the love of God the Father, Come to Him through Jesus Christ, His loving Son; He'll forgive your sins and save your soul forever, And you'll love forevermore this faithful One.-- Felten
Life's biggest decision is what you do with Jesus.
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C H Spurgeon - Faith's Checkbook - What of My House? - “Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved, and thy house.”—Acts 16:31
THIS gospel for a man with a sword at his throat is the gospel for me. This would suit me if I were dying, and it is all that I need while I am living. I look away from self and sin and all idea of personal merit, and I trust the Lord Jesus as the Saviour whom God has given. I believe in Him; I rest on Him; I accept Him to be my all in all. Lord I am saved, and I shall be saved to all eternity, for I believe in Jesus. Blessed be thy name for this. May I daily prove by my life that I am saved from selfishness and worldliness and every form of evil.
But those last words about my “house.” Lord, I would not run away with half a promise when thou dost give a whole one. I beseech thee, save all my family. Save the nearest and dearest. Convert the children, and the grandchildren, if I have any. Be gracious to my servants and all who dwell under my roof or work for me. Thou makest this promise to me personally if I believe in the Lord Jesus; I beseech thee to do as thou hast said.
I would go over in my prayer every day the names of all my brothers and sisters, parents, children, friends, relatives, and servants and give thee no rest till that word is fulfilled: “and thy house.”
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Acts 16:32
They spoke the Word of the Lord - This is why the jailer's household was saved. Sinners must be presented with the Gospel of God in order to respond and believe and be saved. As stated earlier no one becomes a saint (a believer) by proxy or by virtue of their parent's belief in Christ. Each person is called to make a definite, personal statement of belief in Christ's and His good news of salvation by grace through faith.
Acts 16:33
The jailer took them that very hour of the night and washed their wounds -
This is the "about face" supernatural turnaround that one sees when a person is genuinely converted and has a true change in lifestyle. The change in the attitude of the jailer is clearly manifest in washing the wounds of these two prisoners for they were now his brothers in Christ, not his enemies. One evidence of genuine repentance is a desire to make restitution and reparation to those whom we have hurt. Jesus left us the perfect "template" to follow declaring...
If I then, the Lord and the Teacher, washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another's feet. "For I gave you an example that you also should do as I did to you. (John 13:14-15)
Wiersbe poses an interesting question...
What about the other prisoners? Luke doesn't give us the details, but it is possible that some of them were also born again through the witness of Paul and Silas and the jailer. Some of these prisoners may have been waiting for execution, so imagine their joy at hearing a message of salvation! Paul and Silas thought nothing of their own pains as they rejoiced in what God did in that Philippian jail! No doubt the jailer later joined with Lydia in the assembly.
Immediately he was baptized - Remember this must have been sometime between midnight and daylight! One wonders how many people have so desired to identify with Christ that they sought baptism irregardless of the hour or circumstances?
And so they were baptized just like Lydia and her household (Acts 16:15) and just like those men and women who responded to Phillip's proclamation of the Gospel...
But when they believed Philip preaching the good news about the kingdom of God and the name of Jesus Christ, they were being baptized, men and women alike. (Acts 8:12)
Acts 16:34
The jailer rejoiced greatly - The very one who moments before was on the verge of committing suicide, was now rejoicing in his new found faith (and that of his family) in the living God.
Acts 16:37
Paul was born a Roman citizen (Acts 22:28), which gave him certain rights, including a public hearing. Scourging of any Roman citizen was prohibited by law; the rights of Paul and Silas, therefore, had already been violated.
The Roman forbade the binding or beating of a Roman citizen.
Cicero, in his celebrated Oration against Verres, asserts
It is a transgression of the law to bind a Roman citizen; it is wickedness to scourge him. Unheard, no man can be condemned
Wiersbe offers an excellent thought on why Paul did not wish to leave Philippi secretly writing...
Paul, however, was unwilling to sneak out of town, for that kind of exit would have left the new church under a cloud of suspicion. People would have asked, "Who were those men Were they guilty of some crime? Why did they leave so quickly? What do their followers believe?" Paul and his associates wanted to leave behind a strong witness of their own integrity as well as a good testimony for the infant church in Philippi. It was then that Paul made use of his Roman citizenship and boldly challenged the officials on the legality of their treatment. This was not personal revenge but a desire to give protection and respect for the church. (Wiersbe, W: Bible Exposition Commentary. 1989. Victor or Logos)
Acts 16:38
They were afraid - Upon learning of Paul's Roman citizenship, the magistrates were filled with fear, because it was a grave offense to treat Roman citizens as Paul and Silas had been treated.
They are Romans - Paul's father in Tarsus evidently had been awarded Roman citizenship for services to the state, so Paul (and presumably Silas) had been born with such citizenship. Roman citizenship carried with it many privileges and protections established by Roman law.
An interesting question at this juncture is how did Paul and Silas prove their Roman citizenship? Luke is silent on this but the magistrates clearly are convinced.
Williams offers two possible explanations writing that...
They may each have carried a copy of his professio or registration of birth, in which his Roman status would have been recorded. These were convenient in size...To claim Roman citizenship falsely was punishable by death.
Acts 16:40
Wiersbe reviews this chapter writing that...
It is also worth noting that not every sinner comes to Christ in exactly the same manner. Timothy was saved partly through the influence of a godly mother and grandmother. Lydia was converted through a quiet conversation with Paul at a Jewish prayer meeting, while the jailer's conversion was dramatic. One minute he was a potential suicide, and the next minute he was a child of God! Different people with different experiences, and yet all of them changed by the grace of God. Others just like them are waiting to be told God's simple plan of salvation. Will you help them hear? In your own witness for Christ, will you be daring? (Wiersbe, W: Bible Exposition Commentary. 1989. Victor or Logos)
Guzik sums up the 2 radically different conversions...
Lydia was a churchgoer; the guard was not. Lydia was prospering in business; the guard was about to kill himself. Lydia's heart was gently opened; the guard's heart was violently confronted. The guard had a remarkable sign - an earthquake, but all Lydia had was the move of the Holy Spirit in her heart. Both heard the gospel and believed, and through each of them their whole families were touched!
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ROMANS1:1 "Introduction And Commentary"
(Pastor Drew Worthen, Calvary Chapel Port Charlotte, Fl.)
The book of Acts took us on many adventures through different parts of the world and showed us how God extended His grace and mercy to all men everywhere as servants like Peter, Paul, Luke and others, faithfully witnessed to the fact that our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ is the One on whom all men should believe as the only One who could save us from the penalty of our sins.
You might remember how, when Paul was on his third missionary journey, he had been traveling through Asia, which today is Turkey, and he passed through the city of Ephesus where he was the center of attention.
He ended up staying in this city for over two years teaching daily in the school of Tyrannus. It was in Ephesus, during this time, when the seven sons of Sceva, a Jewish priest, tried to cast out a demon from a man.
Act 19:15 "One day the evil spirit answered them, "Jesus I know, and I know about Paul, but who are you?"
16 Then the man who had the evil spirit jumped on them and overpowered them all. He gave them such a beating that they ran out of the house naked and bleeding.
17 When this became known to the Jews and Greeks living in Ephesus, they were all seized with fear, and the name of the Lord Jesus was held in high honor."
Some time later in Ephesus Paul was at the center of a riot because the local silversmiths felt that their business of making idols was being jeopardized because of Paul's teachings of Christ.
Well, because of the uproar, and also because of Paul's previous desire to go to Rome (Acts 19:21), he leaves Ephesus and goes through Macedonia and then down to Achaia, which is Greece, and ends up in the city of Corinth.
It was around the year A.D. 55 or 56 that Paul arrived in this city with a task set before him of going to the different churches to gather collections to take back to the Jerusalem church before he went to Rome.
It was in Corinth that Paul wrote a letter to the Christian church in Rome. In fact, in that letter he told the Roman Christians in Rom 15:30 "I urge you, brothers, by our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love of the Spirit, to join me in my struggle by praying to God for me.
31 Pray that I may be rescued from the unbelievers in Judea and that my service in Jerusalem may be acceptable to the saints there,
32 so that by God's will I may come to you with joy and together with you be refreshed."
His plans were to deliver the money which came from the Gentile churches in Asia, Macedonia, and Achaia and bless the poor Jewish believers in Jerusalem. From there he would then go to Rome.
Of course his plans were thwarted to some extent when the Jews had him arrested and they pressed charges which eventually forced Paul to appeal to Caesar, and the rest we just got through studying in Acts when, through Paul's adventure on the high seas, he was finally delivered to Rome, but instead of a free man he was in chains.
From the time he was in Corinth and wrote to the church in Rome, to the time he finally arrived in Rome, three years had gone by. No one is certain as to how the church in Rome was started.
Paul had never been to Rome and so he certainly was not personally responsible for bringing the gospel of Jesus Christ to that city. In fact, there doesn't seem to be any evidence that any of the apostles ever went to Rome, prior to Paul writing to the Romans, or else he would certainly have made mention of them in this letter, especially if any of them were still there.
So who brought them the gospel? Well, it's not unlikely that many of the Romans themselves brought the gospel back to Rome around the time surrounding Pentecost some thirty years prior.
You'll remember what Luke records for us in Acts 2:1-10 ...... Let's turn there.
Many of those visitors embraced Jesus Christ as a result of Peter's witness to them of the risen Christ. Act 2:41 "Those who accepted his message were baptized, and about three thousand were added to their number that day."
Of those, there's a very good chance that some from Rome believed and went back to Rome with this glorious news. Keep in mind too that a relatively short time after this event in Jerusalem on Pentecost, possibly a few years had gone by, when Stephen was stoned to death for his faith in Christ.
It was after this incident that the Jews were dispersed throughout Judea and Samaria preaching the word. In all likelihood some of those people eventually ended up in Rome where they may have had relatives.
And so, some 30 years later, it really shouldn't surprise us that Paul could say of them in Rom 1:8 "First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for all of you, because your faith is being reported all over the world."
Not only had the Roman Christians wholeheartedly embraced their Lord and Savior, but their faith was being extended everywhere as they came into contact with people who passed through Rome, and quite possibly the Roman Christians themselves were going out from Rome to many parts of the world bringing the love of Christ wherever they went.
Paul certainly heard of their love and faith in Christ and commends them for it and gives thanks and glory to God. Paul loved these Roman Christians for precisely this reason, because they were faithful to lift up the name of Jesus Christ, and they shone for the Lord, and their light was being spread all over the world.
And we see in turn that these Roman believers loved Paul. They knew he was called by the Lord to be an apostle to the Gentiles. And many of them were Gentiles. In fact, in our final studies of Acts we saw their love for Paul being shown.
Act 28:15 "The brothers there (that is in Rome) had heard that we were coming, and they traveled as far as the Forum of Appius and the Three Taverns to meet us. At the sight of these men Paul thanked God and was encouraged."
They came out from Rome, 30 and 40 miles, to meet this pen-pal, if you will, who was special to them. But it's precisely because of this letter, written to the Romans 3 years prior, which is the catalyst for their love as they sense Paul's concern and love for them and their love for the Lord.
It's this letter which was inspired by the Holy Spirit of God that Paul penned. And it's this letter that we are going to be examining, because it's this very letter which really sets the foundation for the premise that our salvation is based entirely on faith in Jesus Christ, not in any good work we could do to earn salvation.
It was this very letter which set afire the heart of a young Roman Catholic monk by the name of Martin Luther as he read of how the Father justified him by faith in Jesus Christ alone.
It was this same monk who realized that all he had seen in the church at that time, which included paying money to the church to gain access to heaven, called indulgences, was nothing more than an abandonment of the Word of God and the salvation we have in Christ alone.
It was the letter to the Romans, and the prompting of the Holy Spirit, which turned Luther around and found this young monk being used by God to start a revolution in Europe. A revolution which involved the pen and the zeal of a new believer in Jesus Christ and the work of God in this man's heart to bring the gospel of Christ to the world.
In his protesting the Roman Catholic church, because of its evil practices at that time, Martin Luther was the one responsible for what is known today as the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century.
And even today bible believing, evangelical Christians outside of the Roman Catholic church are known as Protestants connected to Luther's protesting some 550 years ago. And though you and I may not be actively protesting against the Roman Catholic church as did Luther, we must be actively giving the truth of God's written Word, and the one true gospel found only in the atoning work and resurrection of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.
Our protesting comes in the positive form of not only speaking the truth in love, but living the truth in the power and love of the Holy Spirit of God who indwells and seals us for eternity.
And so, hoepfully, this small backdrop, connected to Paul and the Church in Rome, will inspire and encourage us as we come to the letter addressed to the Romans around A.D. 58, written by the apostle Paul and inspired directly by God Himself as He gives Paul utterance.
If you're not already there please turn with me to the book of Romans.
If we were to outline the letter to the Romans we would find that it has 4 main divisions. William Barclay outlines it this way. "Chapters 1-8 deal with the problem of righteousness. Chapters 9-11 deal with the problem of the Jews, the chosen people. Chapters 12-15 deal with practical questions of life and living. And chapter 16 is a letter of introduction for Phoebe, and a list of final personal greetings."
Paul begins this letter with a salutation and an introduction of himself.
Rom 1:1 "Paul, a servant of Christ Jesus, called to be an apostle and set apart for the gospel of God--..."
One of the things that you find with Paul is that he understood his position before Christ. He understood that the Creator of all the universe mercifully and graciously made a way for Paul to have fellowship with Himself.
And this has always been God's desire; to have fellowship with man. We see this in the very beginning in the Garden of Eden. Adam and Eve were created, first and foremost, to be in communion with God and then, as an extra blessing, to have fellowship with one another. Humanity was designed by God for fellowship or communion.
This is why we exist, to have communion with God, and in that, we bring glory to Him. Paul understood that he didn't deserve this communion because of his own sin which separated him from God.
But, he also understood that Jesus Christ is the one who gave His life as a ransom so that Paul might once again have fellowship with God. And it's in this context that Paul calls himself a servant of Christ Jesus.
It's interesting that one of the favorite expressions of Paul for Jesus is Lord. The Greek word is Kurios and it designates that someone is in total and absolute possession of a person or thing. And so in contrast to Jesus, who is Lord, Paul calls himself Doulos, which is the Greek word for servant, as the NIV puts it. But a better translation would be, slave or bondslave.
Paul knows that since Jesus purchased him and gave him eternal life, and since Jesus is Kurios, Lord and Master of his life, Paul humbly submits himself to his new Master. And by calling himself a slave he is saying, 'I have no rights whatsoever except for the right to serve My gracious God, without whose love and sacrificial gift I would be bound for hell forever. I am eternally indebted to Him.'
This is what Paul was saying to the Corinthians when he wrote in 1Co 7:22 "For he who was a slave when he was called by the Lord is the Lord's freedman; similarly, he who was a free man when he was called is Christ's slave.
23 You were bought at a price; do not become slaves of men."
By acknowledging ourselves to be slaves of Christ we acknowledge God's Divine authority over us. But to be a slave, or bondservant of God, carries with it another aspect, and that is the privilege to be at His disposal.
Jesus says in Mat 20:26 .... "whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant,
27 and whoever wants to be first must be your slave--"
Those who were deemed great in the Kingdom of God, men like Abraham, Moses, David and all of the Patriarches and Prophets, were men who understood themselves to be servants or slaves of God out of gratitude for God's grace for them.
We see this attitude in passages like 1Ki 18:36 "At the time of sacrifice, the prophet Elijah stepped forward and prayed: "O LORD, God of Abraham, Isaac and Israel, let it be known today that you are God in Israel and that I am your SERVANT and have done all these things at your command."
1Ch 6:49 "But Aaron and his descendants were the ones who presented offerings on the altar of burnt offering and on the altar of incense in connection with all that was done in the Most Holy Place, making atonement for Israel, in accordance with all that Moses the SERVANT of God had commanded."
Dan 3:26 "Nebuchadnezzar then approached the opening of the blazing furnace and shouted, "Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego, SERVANTS of the Most High God, come out! Come here!" So Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego came out of the fire,"
Paul was humbled to be part of God's Kingdom, but as a slave he understood that to be the most effective in this kingdom he must be the least, and not see himself as the greatest.
This is a problem in the church today. There are lots of people who want to be noticed, they want first place, they desire the honor of position, but they miss what it is to be great in the Kingdom of God, as God measures greatness, because they do not desire to be a servant a doulos for the Kurios, the Lord.
William Barclay in his commentary on Romans says that "when Paul calls himself a slave of Jesus Christ he is setting himself in the succession of the prophets. Their greatness and their glory lay in the fact that they were slaves of God, and so did his. So then, the slave of Jesus Christ describes at one and the same time the obligation of a great love and the honor of a great office."
What Paul understood about his calling, we need to realize about our calling as well. We've all been called to be slaves of Jesus Christ as we humbly submit ourselves to the King and not try to usurp His authority or glory by boasting of some greatness in our lives.
Paul was a humble man, a slave of Jesus Christ who would be used mightily by God to bring the message of Jesus Christ to the entire world. Was he great in the Kingdom of God? You bet he was; precisely because he was the least.
"Called as an apostle". Every servant understands the position to which he has been called as the calling of God for a purpose. The Greek here is literally "a called apostle". In other words, Paul didn't assume this position, he didn't volunteer or seek this position in the sense that there was an opening he decided to fill.
He was where he was, and was what he was, because God came to him and gave him this office. Therefore, God was the One fully responsible for putting Paul in this position, and only God can get the glory for the way He decides to use Paul in this position.
The word apostle means "one sent". It intimates that God is the One who is doing the sending. In it's general sense we are all apostles because we have all been called by God to be sent out into this world to witness of the Christ.
This is not unlike the word deacon. When we think of the word deacon, in the church, we usually think of the official position which is reserved by God for faithful men that they might serve the Body of Christ. The word deacon actually means "servant".
Now, who would deny that anybody in the Body Christ should be a servant? Men, women and children who are believers are servants or deacons or deaconesses in this sense.
But there is a special calling to serve in a special capacity when we talk of the office of deacon. And this is what Paul understands when he writes, "called to be an apostle."
Yes, we are all sent by God, which is what apostle means, but there were those who were sent and called by God to perform specific duties reserved only for them as they accomplished specific tasks by God.
And so we speak of the apostles as a group of men who had been given great responsibilities to set the foundation of the church of Jesus Christ. Paul was "one sent" as a special messenger to the Gentiles, to call them to repentance and faith in Jesus Christ.
Their specific qualifications as apostles are listed in the word of God, not the least of which is being personally chosen by Jesus Christ for such a high office.
Another qualification was to have been around to have witnessed the risen Christ. In other words, someone who personally witnessed His life, death and ultimate resurrection. To be an apostle in this sense one had to personally have witnessed the resurrected Jesus Christ.
Paul conveys this truth when speaking of his own apostleship. 1Co 9:1 "Am I not free? Am I not an apostle? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord? Are you not the result of my work in the Lord?"
Where did Paul see the risen Jesus? On the road to Damascus while Paul, then called Saul, was still persecuting the church of Jesus Christ.
Paul's apostleship was not something he was boasting in, but rather, he saw it as something he certainly didn't deserve, precisely because he was a persecutor of the church.
He states this in 1Co 15:9 "For I am the least of the apostles and do not even deserve to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God. 10 But by the grace of God I am what I am, and his grace to me was not without effect. No, I worked harder than all of them--yet not I, but the grace of God that was with me."
Paul was humbled to be called by God. As an apostle, however, he still saw himself first and foremost as a servant. His servant-hood revolved around the calling, as he was set apart for the gospel of Jesus Christ, as we read the last part of verse one.
You and I, if we have placed our faith in Jesus Christ, must realize that we too have been called out by God to be slaves of our Lord out of gratitude that He has set us free.
We may not be an apostle in the sense that Paul was, but we are apostles in the sense of the general term which means ones who are sent with a message.
Our Kurios, our Lord and Master, has called us and given us the same message He gave to Paul. That message is the gospel of Jesus Christ.
When we begin to think of our calling in that light, the light which shows us that God has personally intervened in our lives, by calling us to Himself and giving us this message, then hopefully we begin to see the privilege of being a servant of the Most High God.
And instead of seeing our Christian faith as merely an opportunity of being associated with the visible church, we can see it as the Spiritual reality that it is. We have a God who called us from darkness to His light and He has a plan for our lives which is to accomplish His will that He might be glorified in our lives.
So often we think we've been called to Christ's Kingdom to be set free from responsibility. No, we've been set free from the penalty of our sin. The adventure and the blessing of being a child of the living God, comes when we understand that we are His slaves; His personal chosen servants.
The entire letter to the Romans revolves around this truth. And that truth is centered on Jesus Christ who is the truth.
We are servants of Christ. But when we relinquish our lives we find that Christ's life in us is the only true peace in this world that we need. And instead of wandering through this life wondering why we're here, we experience the kind of direction and purpose we were created for.
That's the joy of our salvation; knowing that Christ is using us and lifting up Himself in our lives as we witness to His love and forgiveness.
In one sense we can put ourselves in Paul's place. And in one sense we can fill in the blank of this first verse with our own names ...... Drew, or Charlie or Betty, put your name there..... "a bondservant of Christ Jesus, called as a messenger, set apart for the gospel of Jesus Christ."
That's no small thing. Give glory to your Lord and Master, and walk as one who has been called to be a servant of the Most High God, relying on His grace and strength.
Pastor Drew's Sunday Sermon Gospel of John Commentary Series Romans Commentary Series 1Corinthians Commentary Series Galatians Commentary Series Ephesians Commentary Series 1Thessalonians Commentary Series
ROMANS 1:2-7a "Called By God For A Holy Purpose"
(Pastor Drew Worthen, Calvary Chapel Port Charlotte, Fl.)
In writing this letter to the Romans Paul reminds these Christians that he is able to write with such authority because he has been commissioned by Jesus Christ as the apostle to the Gentiles, under the direction of the Holy Spirit.
As we saw last week, his commission did not exclude the responsibility to be a servant or slave of Jesus Christ, in the sense that he saw his position before God as one who was purchased by the blood of Jesus Christ, and therefore one who willingly submitted to the will of his new Master and Lord.
Recognizing that he was set apart for the gospel of God, Paul continues in Rom 1:2 "the gospel he promised beforehand through his prophets in the Holy Scriptures..."
We've touched on this before, but Paul again sets the stage for this gospel of God, in that it was not a surprise which was sprung on an unsuspecting world.
This gospel or good news was spoken of for hundreds of years before this time of Paul's writing to the Romans. And the reason that this is important is that it shows design and purpose in the plan of God to redeem a lost world.
From all of eternity God planned to send His Son Jesus Christ to die for you and me. And as His plan unfolded the Lord would reveal some of the details through His prophets in what we have today as the O.T. Scriptures.
Paul refers to these as the "Holy" Scriptures given to the prophets. The word holy is the Greek word Hagios which means consecrated or set apart. These are God's very words set apart for the special purpose of revealing Himself to us and the plans He has to bring us to Himself.
Luke records in Act 10:43 "All the prophets testify about him that everyone who believes in him receives forgiveness of sins through his name."
When Paul wrote to Titus he said in Tit 1:1 "Paul, a servant of God and an apostle of Jesus Christ for the faith of God's elect and the knowledge of the truth that leads to godliness--
2 a faith and knowledge resting on the hope of eternal life, which God, who does not lie, promised before the beginning of time,
3 and at his appointed season he brought his word to light through the preaching entrusted to me by the command of God our Savior,"
Paul says that God promised to do this. And God, being a faithful God, came through on His promise by sending His Son, who Paul speaks of in Rom1:3.... "regarding his Son, who as to his human nature was a descendant of David,"
What makes this Savior unique is that He has not only a Divine nature, being God, but a human nature as well. He was born into this world as He chose to take on human flesh. The human lineage from which He came was that of David, the former King of Israel.
People have wondered why Jesus Christ had to become a man and dwell among men. The truth of the matter is that had Jesus not come into this world, born of the flesh, we would still be condemned.
This goes back to the problem in the Garden of Eden when Adam and Eve rebelled against God. Adam was our representative. The outcome of his test, if you will, would determine our eternal future.
As our representative, he chose to fail the test, knowing the outcome in advance. God said if you disobey Me you will surely die; not only a physical death, but spiritual death as well, in the sense that man would be eternally separated from his Creator.
God set the ground rules right there in the beginning. One man, Adam, must represent the entire world, yet to come into existence, and the outcome of Adam's choice must be conferred on all mankind.
In other words, God had to carry out His justice on sinful man. This was the bad news. But the good news or gospel of God, which Paul speaks of in our text, is that in God's plan to buy us back from His own just sentence of death, the Lord had to send another human representative to accomplish what the first Adam did not do, which was to obey God perfectly.
This second Adam, or second representative, had to be another human being. But this man would not fail like the first. Jesus Christ was the second Adam as He took on flesh. As our representative He was victorious, and as a gift to us He gives us the victory, and that victory is eternal life with Himself. But that gift can only be received by faith as we embrace Jesus as Lord and Savior.
Rom 5:16 "Again, the gift of God is not like the result of the one man's sin: The judgment followed one sin and brought condemnation, but the gift followed many trespasses and brought justification.
17 For if, by the trespass of the one man, death reigned through that one man, how much more will those who receive God's abundant provision of grace and of the gift of righteousness reign in life through the one man, Jesus Christ.
18 Consequently, just as the result of one trespass was condemnation for all men, so also the result of one act of righteousness was justification that brings life for all men.
19 For just as through the disobedience of the one man the many were made sinners, so also through the obedience of the one man the many will be made righteous."
Jesus Christ, clothed with humanity, has become our substitute, yet without sin. 2Co 5:21 "God made him who had no sin to be sin [Or be a sin offering] for us, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God."
But to simply be a man could not satisfy the eternal weight of the sin which has separated us from God. To go to a cross and sacrifice yourself, die as a man, and rot in the grave does nothing for anyone.
To forgive sin and the effects of sin which are death, our representative must be able to overcome sin in every way, not the least of which is victory over the grave, which is the curse of sin.
And so Paul continues in Rom 1:4 "and who through the Spirit of holiness was declared with power to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead: Jesus Christ our Lord."
In verse 3 we see the humanity of Jesus as He was born of the seed of David. In verse 4 we see the Divinity or Godhood of Jesus. This is why we have the expression that Jesus is fully man and fully God.
Only God can forgive sin. And so for Jesus to be anything less than God He would fall eternally short of having the authority to forgive us of our sin through His obedience, which took Him to the cross for us.
We get a glimpse of this when Jesus went to cure a paralytic in Mar 2:5b, "...he said to the paralytic, "Son, your sins are forgiven."
6 Now some teachers of the law were sitting there, thinking to themselves,
7 "Why does this fellow talk like that? He's blaspheming! Who can forgive sins but God alone?" {They may have had Isaiah 43:25 in mind which says, "I, even I, am he who blots out your transgressions, for my own sake, and remembers your sins no more.}
Mar.2:8 "Immediately Jesus knew in his spirit that this was what they were thinking in their hearts, and he said to them, "Why are you thinking these things?
9 Which is easier: to say to the paralytic, 'Your sins are forgiven,' or to say, 'Get up, take your mat and walk'?
10 But that you may know that the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins...." He said to the paralytic,
11 "I tell you, get up, take your mat and go home."
12 He got up, took his mat and walked out in full view of them all. This amazed everyone and they praised God, saying, "We have never seen anything like this!"
Only God can forgive sins which is precisely why Jesus Christ can forgive us our sin. He is God come in the flesh. This was an awesome thing to Paul, who understood that Jesus Christ, who stopped him in his tracks on the road to Damascus, was in fact the very God the Scriptures spoke of throughout the entire O.T.
But to demonstrate that Jesus was not just another martyr dying for a cause, our Lord proved His Godhood by raising from the dead with power, according to the Spirit of holiness.
The crucifixion would have meant absolutely nothing had not Jesus come out of the tomb. 1Co 15:17 "And if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile; you are still in your sins."
There has been debate as to how Jesus was raised from the dead. Did the Father raise up the Son of God? Well, it would seem so according to Paul in Gal 1:1 "Paul, an apostle--sent not from men nor by man, but by Jesus Christ and God the Father, who raised him from the dead--"
Others would have us believe that it was the Holy Spirit of God who raised Christ from the dead. Again, Paul is the one quoted. Rom 8:11 "And if the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead is living in you, he who raised Christ from the dead will also give life to your mortal bodies through his Spirit, who lives in you."
Still others believe that Jesus raised Himself from the dead. After all, Jesus tells us in Joh 10:17, "The reason my Father loves me is that I lay down my life--only to take it up again. Joh 10:18 No one takes it from me, but I lay it down of my own accord. I have authority to lay it down and authority to take it up again. This command I received from my Father."
We also read in Joh 2:18 "Then the Jews demanded of him, "What miraculous sign can you show us to prove your authority to do all this?"
19 Jesus answered them, "Destroy this temple, and I will raise it again in three days."
20 The Jews replied, "It has taken forty-six years to build this temple, and you are going to raise it in three days?"
21 But the temple he had spoken of was his body."
So, who raised Christ from the dead? The answer is quite simple. God. 1Co 6:14 "By his power God raised the Lord from the dead, and he will raise us also."
The Father is God; the Son, Jesus, is God; and the Holy Spirit is God. God raised Him. Don't be confused, there aren't three Gods. There is only one God, who is in three persons.
It's a mystery, so don't hurt yourselves trying to figure it out. God is one, and yet three persons. And with all power and authority He has brought Christ back from the dead so that we might have life.
By the way, since we're on this subject, there are those who believe that Jesus only came into existence at His birth; prior to that He didn't exist. Jesus Christ, who is God, has existed for all of eternity. He simply took on flesh in time.
Joh 1:1 "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Joh 1:14 The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us. We have seen his glory, the glory of the One and Only, who came from the Father, full of grace and truth."
In Christ's resurrection we see the power of God. In this undisputed power we see that when Jesus say's He will forgive us our sin, He not only extends the invitation, He has the power and authority to act on it.
Lots of people make promises. But when all is said and done, no one in this world is totally reliable, precisely because we are only human and our future is in the hand of God.
But Christ has all authority. And in this authority He gives grace. Grace is simply that which God gives to us which none of us deserve because we have rebelled against our Lord.
Our salvation is the result of God's grace. And even the gifts we have as believers in Jesus Christ are gifts of grace. Rom 1:5 "Through him and for his name's sake, we received grace and apostleship to call people from among all the Gentiles to the obedience that comes from faith."
Paul understood that His salvation was only because of God's grace. He didn't deserve it. But he also understood that his appointment from God to be an apostle was because of God's grace. He didn't deserve that either.
You and I may deserve nothing from God, but in His grace He has given us everything in Christ. And grace, being a gift, is a gift which is not to be put on a shelf to collect dust.
The gift we have in Christ is to be used by the power of His Holy Spirit Who enables us to utilize the gift in us. We as believers have the gift of eternal life and the gifts of grace, which include the spiritual gifts God has given each one of His children, so that we might encourage one another and build each other up in Christ, that we may be effective servants of our Lord and Master.
But the grace of God is never separated from His command to us to obey and then to walk in that obedience by faith.
Notice again what verse 5 says.... "Through him and for his name's sake, we received grace and apostleship to call people from among all the Gentiles TO THE OBEDIENCE THAT COMES FROM FAITH."
All men are commanded to obey God. God's call of obedience goes out to the world, "Repent of your sins and turn to My Son by faith for the forgiveness of your sins and life eternal." This was the call which Paul extended to the Gentiles.
Men are to obey that call. But men choose to rebel, just like Adam and Eve. And so much of the world does not obey. But of those who obey the call to repent and believe by faith, obedience does not come to an end for us.
Obedience is inferred from the fact that we have a new Lord, the Creator of heaven and earth, who desires that we walk according to His will, not ours. And so for Paul, his obedience to Jesus Christ didn't end with him believing Christ; he continued his obedience by being the apostle Christ called him to be. But his obedience wasn't characterized by him kicking and screaming like a child who wants nothing to do with cooperating with his parents.
Because he understood that Christ first loved him, his desire was to love Christ through obedience. Whatever the Lord wanted of Paul he gladly did what Christ wanted of him. But he did it in the grace and power of the Spirit by faith.
Even Jesus says in Mat 7:21 "Not everyone who says to me, 'Lord, Lord,' will enter the kingdom of heaven, but only he who does the will of my Father who is in heaven."
What Jesus is saying, is that simply saying that you have believed is much different than actually believing in your Lord and Savior, which is characterized by a life of loving obedience to the Lord.
A person whose actions are out of accord with what he says he has believed, must come to grips with the situation. If they are simply saying Lord, Lord and yet do not do the will the Father who is in heaven, they must seriously consider whether they are of the household of faith.
Paul says in Phi 2:12 "Therefore, my dear friends, as you have always obeyed--not only in my presence, but now much more in my absence--continue to work out your salvation with fear and trembling,
13 for it is God who works in you to will and to act according to his good purpose."
What he's not saying there is that we can work out our salvation by our good works. What he is saying is, that in fear and trembling, which is reverence for God, we consider what a great gift we have in Christ; and to know that outside of Him we are eternally lost.
Therefore, let us testify to the world that we do have the Spirit of God in us and walk in obedience to which our Lord has called us. And to the degree that we choose not to walk according to His will, let us fear and tremble that we are grieving the Holy Spirit.
And if we have no desire to walk obediently after Christ then let us fear and tremble that we do not know Him who has called us to Himself, and fear that we may be lost, and tremble to the extent that we would repent and believe and obey our Lord and Savior for the forgiveness of our sins.
Paul isn't saying that we, as believers, are to walk in fear and trembling of God, wondering if He's going to squash us like bugs if we mess up. We have not been given a spirit of fear or of timidity, but according to 2Ti 1:7 "a spirit of power, of love and of self-discipline."
But if the power and love and self-discipline are non-existent, so that a person does not have a desire to walk obediently after Christ by faith, then that person must be fearful that they do not belong to God.
That kind of fear is healthy. Because it's that fear which causes us to flee to the God who forgives us by His grace, and enables us to love Him and serve Him.
But, I believe that Paul is also saying it is good to conduct a self check to see if we as believers are walking obediently after our Lord, and if not then we must repent and return to the grace which we have in Christ, keeping this in mind which we see in Rom.1:6 .......
Rom 1:6 "And you also are among those who are called to belong to Jesus Christ."
What a privilege, to be called by God. What Paul does here is to remind the Roman Christians that what God has done for him He has done for them. The word "called", which is used in verse one, is the exact same word he uses here in verse 6.
Rom 1:1 "Paul, a servant of Christ Jesus, CALLED to be an apostle and set apart for the gospel of God--..."
Rom 1:6 "And you also are among those who are CALLED to belong to Jesus Christ."
We have a tendency to elevate someone like the apostle Paul to the point where we can't relate to his relationship with Christ. The fact of the matter is, that you and I have received the same calling from God as did Paul.
We may not have the same gifts and responsibilities, but we have the same God who has given us the same commission and call, which is to be His witness wherever we are. We are "the called" of Jesus Christ, and we should never forget that. In fact, Paul prayed for the Ephesian church so that they would never forget the great salvation they had.
He said in Eph 1:18 "I pray also that the eyes of your heart may be enlightened in order that you may know the hope to which he has CALLED you, the riches of his glorious inheritance in the saints,
19 and his incomparably great power for us who believe...."
Paul speaks of this calling to Timothy in 2Ti 1:8 "So do not be ashamed to testify about our Lord, or ashamed of me his prisoner. But join with me in suffering for the gospel, by the power of God,
9 who has saved us and CALLED us to a holy life--not because of anything we have done but because of his own purpose and grace. This grace was given us in Christ Jesus before the beginning of time,
10 but it has now been revealed through the appearing of our Savior, Christ Jesus, who has destroyed death and has brought life and immortality to light through the gospel."
When God called us to Himself, He had great plans for us and still does. But He desires we obey Him, as to this calling, with loving hearts, not kicking and screaming like we sometimes do.
What should help us to want us to love our Lord Jesus, in a way that shows our obedience to Him, is what Paul shares in Rom 1:7 "To all in Rome who are LOVED BY GOD and CALLED to be saints: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ."
The KJV and the NAS uses the phrase "beloved of God". The idea here is that God has loved us dearly, unconditionally. Paul says to the Romans and to us, "you have all been dearly loved by God and He has called you to be His saints."
The word saint here is the same word in the Greek, which we saw in verse 2, when Paul spoke of the "Holy" Scriptures. The word holy and the word saint are Hagios in the Greek.
We have been called for a purpose. That purpose is to be holy as unto the Lord. Now, aside from the moral implications, which we must not ignore, the word also means consecrated, set apart for a special work.
We are to be consecrated in the sense that we understand that our lives, which were purchased by Christ, are to be set aside for a holy purpose, a consecrated work for our God.
God doesn't set anything aside for a holy purpose unless He actually desires to use it for a special purpose. And yet, we often go through life just being mediocre about our attitude towards this calling from God.
We are His saints, His consecrated and holy ones, called to Himself and beloved by God. What a great God we have. Do we see Him as great and worthy, or do we see Him as a God of convenience whom we call upon only when things get rough?
Never take Him for granted. He never takes us for granted. He continually loves us, and calls us to Himself, with the express purpose of using us as vessels which are to be consecrated for His will and His good pleasure.
I've shared this verse with you on several occasions. I'll end with it. It's not intended to puff us up. But it is designed to put our life with God into perspective, and encourage us to rejoice that God has graciously bestowed His love on us for the high calling of being His ambassador in this world.
1Pe 2:9 "But you are a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God, that you may declare the praises of him who called you out of darkness into his wonderful light."
Declare Him with gratitude in your hearts, and with the understanding that it is only by God's grace that we are who we are, and we have so great a salvation in Jesus Christ.
May our obedience be motivated by our love for Him, knowing that He first loved us. And may our obedience be shown as we rely on His Spirit who enables to walk after His will, according to His word, for His glory.
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