tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-65026800748899682132012-02-16T19:29:29.123-08:00michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.comBlogger241100tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-72449182273774746352010-09-01T08:19:00.000-07:002010-09-01T08:19:53.435-07:00<div style='text-align:center;margin:0px auto 10px;'><a href='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/TH5vGIe1R8I/AAAAAAAABOg/F5YCBMgrbso/s1600/me22.jpg'><img src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/TH5vGIe1R8I/AAAAAAAABOg/F5YCBMgrbso/s400/me22.jpg' border='0' alt='' /></a>&nbsp;</div><div style='clear:both; text-align:CENTER'><a href='http://picasa.google.com/blogger/' target='ext'><img src='http://photos1.blogger.com/pbp.gif' alt='Posted by Picasa' style='border: 0px none ; padding: 0px; background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: initial; -moz-background-origin: initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: initial;' align='middle' border='0' /></a></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6502680074889968213-7244918227377474635?l=ernestine80f.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-955125567108312762010-09-01T08:11:00.000-07:002010-09-01T08:11:03.809-07:00<a href="http://www.myspace.com/Modules/PostTo/Pages/?u=http%3A%2F%2Fc2.ac-images.myspacecdn.com%2Fimages02%2F117%2Fl_0c3c31d412bd468fa3a0eefc71de804d.jpg">Share on MySpace</a>: "- Sent using Google Toolbar"<div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6502680074889968213-95512556710831276?l=ernestine80f.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-83113980338553550432010-09-01T07:39:00.000-07:002010-09-01T07:39:40.435-07:00<div style='text-align:center;margin:0px auto 10px;'><a href='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/TH5lqkFABOI/AAAAAAAABOM/R6R7575qsTU/s1600/me22.jpg'><img src='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/TH5lqkFABOI/AAAAAAAABOM/R6R7575qsTU/s400/me22.jpg' border='0' alt='' /></a>&nbsp;</div><div style='clear:both; text-align:CENTER'><a href='http://picasa.google.com/blogger/' target='ext'><img src='http://photos1.blogger.com/pbp.gif' alt='Posted by Picasa' style='border: 0px none ; padding: 0px; background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: initial; -moz-background-origin: initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: initial;' align='middle' border='0' /></a></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6502680074889968213-8311398033855355043?l=ernestine80f.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-376349816287650692010-09-01T07:17:00.000-07:002010-09-01T07:17:41.684-07:00<div style='text-align:center;margin:0px auto 10px;'><a href='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/TH5ghIfNHTI/AAAAAAAABN4/rot7N7lCT8Q/s1600/me22.jpg'><img src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/TH5ghIfNHTI/AAAAAAAABN4/rot7N7lCT8Q/s400/me22.jpg' border='0' alt='' /></a>&nbsp;</div><div style='clear:both; 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text-align:CENTER'><a href='http://picasa.google.com/blogger/' target='ext'><img src='http://photos1.blogger.com/pbp.gif' alt='Posted by Picasa' style='border: 0px none ; padding: 0px; background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: initial; -moz-background-origin: initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: initial;' align='middle' border='0' /></a></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6502680074889968213-1789896811613502744?l=ernestine80f.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-77672419447643380052010-01-23T07:20:00.000-08:002010-01-23T15:47:46.818-08:00<div style='text-align:center;margin:0px auto 10px;'><a href='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/S1sTrrcNhqI/AAAAAAAABCs/BuXc7hQJt4s/s1600-h/Michael+Justin.jpg'><img src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/S1sTrrcNhqI/AAAAAAAABCs/BuXc7hQJt4s/s400/Michael+Justin.jpg' border='0' alt='' /></a>&nbsp;</div><div style='clear:both; text-align:CENTER'><a href='http://picasa.google.com/blogger/' target='ext'><img src='http://photos1.blogger.com/pbp.gif' alt='Posted by Picasa' style='border: 0px none ; padding: 0px; background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: initial; -moz-background-origin: initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: initial;' align='middle' border='0' /></a></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6502680074889968213-7767241944764338005?l=ernestine80f.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-39157494655939317552010-01-23T07:06:00.000-08:002010-01-23T15:47:46.823-08:00<div style='text-align:center;margin:0px auto 10px;'><a href='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/S1sQiOBQsMI/AAAAAAAABCk/2WRhmqc2VKU/s1600-h/Jacob+Morgan.jpg'><img src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/S1sQiOBQsMI/AAAAAAAABCk/2WRhmqc2VKU/s400/Jacob+Morgan.jpg' border='0' alt='' /></a>&nbsp;</div><div style='clear:both; text-align:CENTER'><a href='http://picasa.google.com/blogger/' target='ext'><img src='http://photos1.blogger.com/pbp.gif' alt='Posted by Picasa' style='border: 0px none ; padding: 0px; background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: initial; -moz-background-origin: initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: initial;' align='middle' border='0' /></a></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6502680074889968213-3915749465593931755?l=ernestine80f.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-61292517751406197202010-01-23T07:05:00.000-08:002010-01-23T07:05:52.353-08:00<div style='text-align:center;margin:0px auto 10px;'><a href='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/S1sQT5WhAII/AAAAAAAABCc/24LSnN73-iY/s1600-h/imonly1alive.JPG'><img src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_qon4Cf4lcEE/S1sQT5WhAII/AAAAAAAABCc/24LSnN73-iY/s400/imonly1alive.JPG' border='0' alt='' /></a>&nbsp;</div><div style='clear:both; text-align:CENTER'><a href='http://picasa.google.com/blogger/' target='ext'><img src='http://photos1.blogger.com/pbp.gif' alt='Posted by Picasa' style='border: 0px none ; padding: 0px; background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: initial; -moz-background-origin: initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: initial;' align='middle' border='0' /></a></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6502680074889968213-6129251775140619720?l=ernestine80f.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-23907162844078693372008-08-25T08:50:00.001-07:002010-01-23T15:47:46.837-08:00All Hearing Ear?<div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6502680074889968213-2390716284407869337?l=ernestine80f.blogspot.com' alt='' /></div>michael"DEE"househttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09007865138829279696noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6502680074889968213.post-80746232244326479442008-08-23T14:18:00.000-07:002008-08-23T14:22:13.530-07:00View entire message<br />Bp138 <br />There's a people that are a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God, that they may declare the praises of him who called them out of darkness into his wonderful light. Read ahead to see who that is!!! The answer may surprise you!!!<br />Nugget: What percentage of kids choose the cereal for the prize inside? That’s on the surface. How many marriages started because somebody was everything the beautiful one ever wanted because they were beautiful? Seek first the Kingdom of God. Matthew 6:33 (The Message)<br />The Message (MSG)<br />30-33"If God gives such attention to the appearance of wildflowers—most of which are never even seen—don't you think he'll attend to you, take pride in you, do his best for you? What I'm trying to do here is to get you to relax, to not be so preoccupied with getting, so you can respond to God's giving. People who don't know God and the way he works fuss over these things, but you know both God and how he works. Steep your life in God-reality, God-initiative, God-provisions. Don't worry about missing out. You'll find all your everyday human concerns will be met.<br />But the end of all things is near: so be serious in your behaviour and keep on the watch with prayer.<br />Wilderness is generally defined as a natural environment on Earth that has not been modified by human activity. Wilderness areas are considered important for ecological study, conservation, solitude, and recreation. Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral and aesthetic reasons as well, some nature writers believe wilderness is vital for the human spirit and creativity. [1]<br />1 Peter 4:7<br />The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme. <br />Woe to them that {a} go down to Egypt for help; and rely on horses, and trust in chariots, because they are many; and in horsemen, because they are very strong; but they look not to the Holy One of Israel, neither {b} seek the LORD!<br />I called my ride Hattie to go to Ernestine’s and learned thy have a picnic for their son, Ronnie, to attend. I learned not to trust others’ chariot. I saw a good Bible Paper topic. There were two special reasons why the Israelites should not join with the Egyptians: first, because the Lord had commanded them never to return there, Deuteronomy 17:sixteen<br /> The king, moreover, must not acquire great numbers of horses for himself or make the people return to Egypt to get more of them, for the LORD has told you, "You are not to go back that way again."<br />“He who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for us all—how will he not also, along with him, graciously give us all things?”- Romans 8:thirty-two<br /><br />People have technology take the place of the Lord so much that He has been pushed away. Jesus likes to go the long way around the barn. That’s the way the flesh looks at Jesus Christ. The flesh thinks Jesus is all wrong. That’s all wrong. I need a ride to Ernestine’s smallgroup, so my need makes it hard to see what is most important. I mustn’t put my wishes above my needs. When I had somebody work on my 505 pg book, disk error, he erased it. I was putting my trust in him before the Lord. I was DEVASTATED WITH ANGUISH, OVERWHELMED WITH GRIEF, OVERCOME WITH SORROW, and CONFOUNDED WITH HEARTACHE. <br />I get my joy from Jesus. He is the hope for all I do. The Spirit needs to be continually fed. <br />68 The LORD will send you back in ships to Egypt on a journey I said you should never make again. There you will offer yourselves for sale to your enemies as male and female slaves, but no one will buy you.<br />Faith is great to have. There was a retarded man that had a fake gun. The preacher had a splitting headache. The man said, shooting him, “In Jesus’ name, be healed!” That very second the preacher was healed! People are blessed lest they should forget the benefit of their redemption: and secondly, lest they should be corrupted with the superstition and idolatry of the Egyptians, and so forsake God, Jer 2:18. Jeremiah 2:18 (New International Version) Check this out. after I asked you to pray for my brother’s baby mama and son, I saw you did. I learned his son moved back in with the mama. I didn’t know he was with his granny. Please pray for his focus. Justin, my brother, was spontaneous, impulsive, unprompted, spur-of-the-moment. He also moved around all the time. Georgia Florida Georgia Florida Tennessee…. He was so unstable suicide became his only sensible way out. Now that I see what the continual shifting did, I know to pray for the baby mama and son. Please join me in prayer for them. That’s so neat how your earlier prayer did. God bless you! Justin also seemed to be looking for a fight. I thought of that when he and I were playing pool with his friends. He made me mad and when I looked at him, his friends very scared backed away from him and fearfully looked at him.<br />18 Now why go to Egypt <br /> to drink water from the Shihor [a] ? <br /> And why go to Assyria <br /> to drink water from the River [b] ?<br />The New John Gill Exposition<br />of the Entire Bible<br />And now what hast thou to do in the way of Egypt…<br />By worshipping of idols, in imitation of them; or by sending ambassadors thither for help, when they had their Lord, their God, so nigh, had they not forsaken him; nor had Josiah any business to go out against Pharaohnecho, (2 Chronicles 35:21) and, contrary to the express word of God by the Prophet Jeremy, did the Jews which remained in Judea go into Egypt, (Jeremiah 42:19) (43:1-7) . To drink the waters of Sihor?<br />which is the river Nile, as Jarchi interprets it. The Septuagint and Arabic versions render it "the waters of Geon", or "Gihon": and this also is the same with the Nile, as Josephus F11 affirms, who says,<br /> ``Geon, which runs through Egypt, is the same which the Greeks call Nile.'' <br />So Jerom F12 from Eusebius,<br /> ``Geon is a river, which with the Egyptians is called Nile.'' <br />The Vulgate Latin version renders it, "troubled water"; and such were the waters of the Nile, which had its name of Sihor from the blackness of it; and hence, by the Greeks F13, was called Melas; and by the Latines F14, Melo. Hence, as Braunius F15 observes, it was represented by a black stone, as other rivers by a white one; for which reason the black colour was very grateful to the Egyptians; and for the same reason Osiris, which is the very Nile itself, was reckoned black; and the ox Apis they worshipped was a black one, at least part of it, and was covered with black linen cloth; and its priests were also clothed in black, hence called Chemarim, (Hosea 10:5) (Zephaniah 1:4) . Or what hast thou to do in the way of Assyria;<br />I called Pat and Les and was very relieved to learn they will pick me up. What a relief! Ernestine also told me to tell them Maryland needs a ride too. Pat sweetly obliged and said that’s fine! I’m so thankful! <br />to go after their idolatrous practices, or to send to them for help; for this was the usual method of the Jews; when the Assyrians oppressed them, then they sent to Egypt for help; and when the Egyptians were upon them, then they applied to the Assyrians; and in both cases acted wrong, for they ought to have sought the Lord their God only: to drink the waters of the river?<br />of the river Euphrates. The sense is, that they preferred the waters of the Nile and of Euphrates, or the gods of the Egyptians and Assyrians, or the help of these people, before the Lord, the fountain of living waters, and his worship and powerful help. The Targum paraphrases this last clause thus,<br /> ``why do ye make covenant with the Assyrian, to carry you captive beyond the river Euphrates?''<br />the Spirit in you is unfathomably powerful! It makes you supernatural! People forsake the Lord if they put their trust in worldly things: for they cannot trust in both. With it so near the end, be careful what you trust in. Signs of the End of the Age Jesus left the temple and was walking away when his disciples came up to him to call his attention to its buildings. "Do you see all these things?" he asked. "I tell you the truth, not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down." As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to him privately. "Tell us," they said, "when will this happen, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the end of the age?" Jesus answered: "Watch out that no one deceives you. For many will come in my name, claiming, 'I am the Christ,[a]' and will deceive many. You will hear of wars and rumors of wars, but see to it that you are not alarmed. Such things must happen, but the end is still to come. Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places. All these are the beginning of birth pains. "Then you will be handed over to be persecuted and put to death, and you will be hated by all nations because of me. At that time many will turn away from the faith and will betray and hate each other, and many false prophets will appear and deceive many people. Because of the increase of wickedness, the love of most will grow cold, but he who stands firm to the end will be saved. And this gospel of the kingdom will be preached in the whole world as a testimony to all nations, and then the end will come. "So when you see standing in the holy place 'the abomination that causes desolation,'[b] spoken of through the prophet Daniel—let the reader understand— then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. Let no one on the roof of his house go down to take anything out of the house. Let no one in the field go back to get his cloak. How dreadful it will be in those days for pregnant women and nursing mothers! Pray that your flight will not take place in winter or on the Sabbath. For then there will be great distress, unequaled from the beginning of the world until now—and never to be equaled again. If those days had not been cut short, no one would survive, but for the sake of the elect those days will be shortened. At that time if anyone says to you, 'Look, here is the Christ!' or, 'There he is!' do not believe it. For false Christs and false prophets will appear and perform great signs and miracles to deceive even the elect—if that were possible. See, I have told you ahead of time. "So if anyone tells you, 'There he is, out in the desert,' do not go out; or, 'Here he is, in the inner rooms,' do not believe it. For as lightning that comes from the east is visible even in the west, so will be the coming of the Son of Man. Wherever there is a carcass, there the vultures will gather. "Immediately after the distress of those days " 'the sun will be darkened, <br /> and the moon will not give its light; <br /> the stars will fall from the sky, <br /> and the heavenly bodies will be shaken.'[c] <br />Jeremiah 2:2 Go and cry in the ears of Jerusalem, saying, Thus saith the LORD; I remember thee, the a kindness of thy youth, the love of thy espousals, when thou wentest after me in the wilderness, b in a land [that was] not sown.<br />Hattie called and said because of ugly weather her son’s, Ronny’s, picnic was called off. I called Pat and apologetically told her Hattie said she’d be able to come pick me up after all. The weather influences your ride in that manner. It was the living God showing us angles adjustments can take. (a) According to that grace and favour which I showed you from the beginning, when I first chose you to be my people, and married you to myself, <br />I wake and my back doesn't hurt! That stands out! Then when I got to church, I see we have cards for prayers and I put that down. I pray for my nephew’s stability. He is switching homes. Please pray with me. I told Trudy how I bedside pray every night. My brother picked that up from our youth after he started dating a girl in church. I picked it up from him. We pray over requests. I’m inspired to read a book on prayer, after I find it. Please pray for Trudy, who has a rash that keeps coming back. Ernestine tells her to do the lotion everyday. Praise the Lord! after prayer, I got the rep I was doing before Ecuador! It’s taken me that long! On the prayer cards, Ernestine wrote NOTHING about her. That’s Ernestine for you. we have prayer. Jesus just needs a few good men. Praise the Lord my desired teams won yesterday. Completely, totally, wholly, entirely, fully trust in Jesus. We trust Lord Almighty to shed His grace and favor upon the church. I praise the Lord for showing me the world isn’t like it makes out. now I know. Papa called Mom and told her he saw a documentary on Ecuador and said it looks very, very, very beautiful. He’d “love to” visit. Mom said I said they're poor. She said but the kids, in the pictures, sure do look dressed up. Praise the Lord He didn't get me married when I wanted to. A decade ago. Now I appreciate being single. Jesus the Savior has pointed out the sides and what they say and who is saying it. after prayer, I learn Mom is at the Toyota place. Four hundred dollar inspection, AC checked, oil change, rotated tires, inspected brakes, cleaned them, replaced air filter, adjusted brakes, inspected battery, cleaned fuel injection. Trudy passes out a confession of Jesus' promises. We aren't going to outreach. I am walking home, I think. But Cindy sweetly offers a ride because it keeps raining. Florida aug weather. I accept the lovable offer and lavish the generosity in her cute car with its charming manner. That is church family and increases appreciation for the church. Appreciation is a term used in accounting relating to the increase in value of an asset. In this sense it is the reverse of depreciation, which measures the fall in value of assets over their normal life-time.<br /><br />In simple words we can say that depreciation is the reduction in the value of an asset due to usage, passage of time, wear and tear, technological outdating or obsolescence, depletion or other such factors.<br />Depreciation is an estimated or expected view of the decline in value of an asset. For example, an entity may depreciate its equipment by 15% per year. This rate should be reasonable in aggregate (such as when a manufacturing company is looking at all of its machinery), and consistently employed. However, there is no expectation that each individual item declines in value by the same amount, primarily because the recognition of depreciation is based upon the allocation of historical costs and not current market prices.<br />For historical cost purposes, assets are recorded on the balance sheet at their original cost; this is called the historical cost. Historical cost minus all depreciation expenses recognized on the asset since purchase is called the book value. Depreciation is not taken out of these assets directly. It is instead recorded in a contra asset account: an asset account with a normal credit balance, typically called "accumulated depreciation". Balancing an asset account with its corresponding accumulated depreciation account will result in the net book value. The net book value will never fall below the salvage value, meaning that once an asset is fully depreciated, no further expenses will be taken during its life. Salvage value is the estimated value of the asset at the end of its useful life. In this way, total depreciation for an asset will never exceed the estimated total cash outlay (depreciable basis) for the asset. The exception to this is in many price-regulated industries (public utilities) where salvage is estimated net of the cost of physically removing the asset from service. If the expected cost of removal exceeds the expected raw (or gross) salvage, then the net of the two (called net salvage) may be negative. In this case, the depreciation recorded on the regulated books may exceed the depreciable basis. Companies have no obligation to dispose of depreciated assets, of course, and many fully depreciated assets continue to generate income.<br /><br />Recording a depreciation expense will involve a credit to an accumulated depreciation account.So the corresponding debit will involve either an expense account or an asset account which represents a future expense, such as work in process. Depreciation is recorded as an adjusting journal entry.<br /><br />A write-down is a form of depreciation that involves a partial write off. Part of the value of the asset is removed from the balance sheet. The reason may be that the book value (accounted value) of the fixed asset has diverged from the market value and causes the company a loss. An example of this would be a revaluation of goodwill on an acquisition that went bad.<br /><br />[edit] Methods of depreciation<br /><br />There are several methods for calculating depreciation, generally based on either the passage of time or the level of activity (or use) of the asset.<br /><br /> (b) When I had delivered you out of Egypt.<br />Therefore the Sovereign God is showing us I would've regretted the manner of things like they were before the picnic was called off. Hurricane Fay was an example. She brought along many unneeded precautions. If somebody killed your daughter, what would be the Christian thing to do? To hate the killer or pray that he get saved?<br /><br />2:3 Israel [was] c holiness to the LORD, [and] the firstfruits of his increase: all d that devour him shall offend; evil shall come upon them, saith the LORD.<br />Jesus is Almighty and everlasting and the only way to heaven. <br /> Chosen above all others to serve the Lord only and the first offered to the Lord of all other nations.<br /> Whoever challenged this people, or else annoyed them, was punished.<br /><br />2:5 Thus saith the LORD, What iniquity have your fathers found in me, that they have gone e far from me, and have walked after vanity, and have become f vain?<br /><br /> That is, fallen to vile idolatry.<br /> Altogether given to vanity, and are become blind and insensible as the idols that they serve.<br /><br />2:6 Neither said they, Where [is] the LORD that brought us out of the land of Egypt, that led us through the wilderness, through a land of deserts and of pits, through a land of drought, and of g the shadow of death, through a land that no man passed through, and where no man dwelt?<br /><br /> Where for lack of all things needed for life, you could look for nothing every hour but present death.<br /><br />2:7 And I brought you into a plentiful country, to eat the fruit of it and the goodness of it but when ye entered, ye defiled h my land, and made my heritage an abomination.<br /><br /><br /> By your idolatry and wicked manners, (Psalms 78:58,106:38).<br /><br />2:8 The priests said not, i Where [is] the LORD? and they that handle the k law knew me not: the l rulers also transgressed against me, and the prophets prophesied by m Baal, and walked after [things that] do not profit.<br /><br /> They did not teach the people to seek after God.<br /> As the scribes, who would have expounded the law to the people.<br /> Meaning, the princes and ministers: signifying, that all estates were corrupt.<br /> That is, spoke vain things, and brought the people from the true worship of God to serve idols: for by Baal, which was the chief idol of the Moabites, are meant all idols.<br /><br />2:9 Wherefore I will yet n plead with you, saith the LORD, and with your children’s children will I plead.<br /><br /> (n) Signifying that he would not as he might, straightway condemn them, but shows them by evident examples their great ingratitude that they might be ashamed and repent.<br /><br />2:10 For pass over the isles of o Chittim, and see; and send to p Kedar, and consider diligently, and see if there is such a thing.<br /><br /> (o) Meaning, the Grecians and Italians.<br /> (p) To Arabia.<br /><br />2:11 Hath a nation changed [their] gods, which [are] yet no gods? but my people have changed their q glory for [that which] doth not r profit.<br /><br /> (q) That is, God who is their glory, and who makes them glorious above all other people, reproving the Jews that they were less diligent to serve the true God, than were the idolaters to honour their vanities.<br /> (r) Meaning the idols who were their destruction, (Psalms 106:36).<br /><br />2:12 Be astonished, O ye s heavens, at this, and be horribly afraid, be ye very desolate, saith the LORD.<br /><br /> (s) He shows that the insensible creatures abhor this vile ingratitude, and as it were tremble for fear of God’s great judgments against the same.<br /><br />2:13 For my people have committed two evils; they have forsaken me t the fountain of living waters, [and] hewed out for themselves cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water.<br /><br /><br /> (t) Signifying that when men forsake God’s word, which is the fountain of life, they reject God himself, and so fall to their own inventions, and vain confidence, and procure to themselves destruction, (Jonah 2:8; Zechariah 10:2).<br /><br />2:14 [Is] Israel a u servant? [is] he a homeborn [slave]? why is he laid waste?<br /><br /><br /> (u) Have I ordered them like servants and not like dearly beloved children? (Exodus 4:22) therefore it is their fault only, if the enemy spoil them.<br /><br />2:15 The young x lions roared upon him, [and] yelled, and they made his land waste: his cities are burned without y inhabitant.<br /><br /> (x) The Babylonians, Chaldeans, and Assyrians.<br /> (y) Not one will be left to dwell there.<br /><br />2:16 Also the children of z Noph and Tahapanes have a broken the crown of thy head.<br /><br /> (z) That is, the Egyptians, for these were two great cities in Egypt.<br /> (a) Have grievously vexed you at various times.<br /><br />2:17 Hast thou not procured this to thyself, in that thou hast forsaken the LORD thy God, when he b led thee by the way?<br /><br /> (b) Showing that God would have still led them correctly, if they would have followed him.<br /><br />2:18 And now what hast thou to do in the way of c Egypt, to drink the waters of Sihor? or what hast thou to do in the way of Assyria, to drink the waters of the d river?<br /><br /><br /> c To seek help from man, as though God was not able enough to defend you, which is to drink from the puddles and to leave the fountain, (Isaiah 31:1).<br /> That is, Euphrates.<br /><br />2:19 Thy own wickedness shall e correct thee, and thy backslidings shall reprove thee: know therefore and see that [it is] an evil [thing] and bitter, that thou hast forsaken the LORD thy God, and that my fear [is] not in thee, saith the Lord GOD of hosts.<br /><br /><br /> Meaning, that the wicked are insensible, till the punishment for their sin waken them as in (Jeremiah 2:26; Isaiah 3:9).<br /><br />2:20 For of old time I have broken thy yoke, [and] burst thy bands; and thou saidst, f I will not transgress; when upon every high hill and under every green tree thou wanderest, playing the harlot.<br /><br /><br /> When I delivered you out of Egypt, (Exodus 19:8; Deuteronomy 5:27; Joshua 24:16; Ezra 10:12; Hebrews 8:6).<br /><br />2:22 For though thou shalt wash thee with g lye, and take thee much soap, [yet] thy iniquity is marked before me, saith the Lord GOD.<br /><br /> Though you use all the purifications and ceremonies of the law, you cannot escape punishment.<br /><br />2:23 How canst thou say, I am not polluted, I have not h gone after Baalim? see thy way in the valley, know what thou hast done: [thou art] a swift i dromedary traversing her ways;<br /><br /> Meaning that hypocrites deny that they worship the idols, but that they honour God in them, and therefore they call their doings God’s service.<br /> He compares the idolaters to these beasts, because they never cease running to and fro: for both valleys and hills are full of their idolatry.<br /><br />2:24 A wild k donkey used to the wilderness, [that] snuffeth up the wind at her pleasure; in her occasion who can turn her away? all they that seek her will not weary themselves; in her l month they shall find her.<br /><br /> He compares the idolaters to a wild ass: for she can never be tamed nor yet wearied: for as she runs she can take her wind at every opportunity.<br /> That is, when she is with foal, and therefore the hunters wait their time: so though you cannot be turned back now from your idolatry, yet when your iniquity will be at the fall, God will meet with you.<br /><br />2:25 Withhold thy foot from m being unshod, and thy throat from thirst: but thou saidst, There is no hope: no; for I have loved strangers, and after them will I go.<br /><br /><br /> By this he warns them that they should not go into strange countries to seek help: for they should but spend their labour, and hurt themselves, which is here meant by the bare foot and thirst, (Isaiah 57:10).<br /><br />2:26 As the n thief is ashamed when he is found, so is the house of Israel ashamed; they, their kings, their princes, and their priests, and their prophets,<br /><br /> (n) As a thief will not acknowledge his fault, till he is taken with the deed, and ready to be punished, so they will not confess their idolatry, till the plagues due to the same light on them.<br /><br />2:27 Saying to a tree, Thou [art] my o father; and to a stone, Thou hast brought me forth: for they have turned [their] back to me, and not [their] face: but in the time of their trouble they will say, Arise, and save us.<br /><br /> (o) Meaning, that idolaters rob God of his honour: and where as he has taught to call him the father of all flesh, they attribute this title to their idols.<br /><br />2:28 But where [are] thy gods that thou hast made for thyself? let them arise, if they can save thee in the time of thy trouble: for [according p to] the number of thy cities are thy gods, O Judah.<br /><br /><br /> (p) You thought that your gods of blocks and stones could have helped you, because they were many in number and present in every place: but now let us see whether either the multitude or their presence can deliver you from my plague, (Jeremiah 11:13). <br /><br />2:29 Why will q ye plead with me? ye all have transgressed against me, saith the LORD.<br /><br /> (q) As though I did you injury in punishing you, seeing that your faults are so evident.<br /><br />2:30 In vain have I smitten your children; they have received no correction: your r own sword hath devoured your prophets, like a destroying lion.<br /><br /> (r) That is, you have killed your prophets, that exhorted you to repentance, as Zechariah, Isaiah, etc.<br /><br />2:31 O generation, see ye the word of the LORD. Have I been a s wilderness to Israel? a land of darkness? why say my people, We are lords; t we will come no more to thee?<br />The general term “wilderness” may sound like it refers only to desolate or desert areas, but in the context of Palestine it has wider connotations. Wilderness isn’t just a type of place, it’s also a concept when it comes to biblical texts. The Hebrew word used for wilderness, midbar, doesn’t just mean “a desolate and deserted place,” it also means “that which is beyond.” Typically, it means “beyond” organized settlements, the control of the government, and traditional civilized norms.<br />Where is Wilderness?:<br />Often the “wilderness” was pastoral land with plenty of water and vegetation but no permanent settlements or villages. In fact the Hebrew word originally meant “place of herding.” It could even be a wooded area or have a river — John the Baptist performed baptisms in the wilderness. Almost any place beyond the immediate reach of a city or village could qualify as wilderness. Sometimes the wilderness was perceived as an abode of evil spirits; often, though, it was the abode of bandits insead.<br />Why is Wilderness important?:<br />Usually the biblical references to Wilderness are negative: it’s a place of thirst, hunger, deprivation of all sorts, windswept, haunted, etc. At the same time, though, there are signs of romanticization of a nomadic past where one is not hemmed in by the rules of city life.<br /><br />Quite often prophets wandered in the wilderness to be “tested” or “tempted,” thus making the wilderness a place of spiritual renewal. Surviving in the wilderness demonstrated that one was able to overcome physical and psychological dangers — not just because one was cut off from ready sources of food or water, but also from their community. Whenever the Bible references a wilderness, readers should look beyond the mere physical manifestation and consider the wider ramifications of what it might mean. <br /> (s) Have I not given them abundance of all things?<br /> (t) But will trust in our own power and policy.<br /><br />2:33 Why trimmest thou thy way to u seek love? therefore hast thou also taught the wicked ones thy ways.<br /><br /> (u) With strangers.<br />Saint Paul the apostle (Hebrew: שאול התרסי‎ Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning "Saul of Tarsus", Ancient Greek: Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and Παῦλος Paulos[1]), the "Apostle to the Gentiles"[2] (ca 5 - 67CE) was, together with Saint Peter and James the Just,[3] the most notable of early Christian missionaries. Unlike the Twelve Apostles, there is no indication that Paul, born in Tarsus, ever met Jesus before the latter's crucifixion.[4] According to Acts, his conversion took place as he was traveling the road to Damascus, and experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus.[5] Paul asserts that he received the Gospel not from man, but by "the revelation of Jesus Christ".[6]<br /><br />Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are traditionally attributed to Paul, though in some cases the authorship is disputed. Paul had often employed an amanuensis, only occasionally writing himself.[7][8] As a sign of authenticity, the writers of these epistles[9] sometimes employ a passage presented as being in Paul's own handwriting. These epistles were circulated within the Christian community. They were prominent in the first New Testament canon ever proposed (by Marcion), and they were eventually included in the orthodox Christian canon of Scripture. They are believed to be the earliest-written books of the New Testament.<br /><br />Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.[10] His influence on the main strands of Christian thought has been demonstrable: from St. Augustine of Hippo to the controversies between Gottschalk and Hincmar of Reims; between Thomism and Molinism; Martin Luther, John Calvin and the Arminians; to Jansenism and the Jesuit theologians, and even to the German church of the twentieth century through the writings of the scholar Karl Barth, whose commentary on the Letter to the Romans had a political as well as theological impact.<br />Contents<br />[hide]<br /><br /> * 1 Sources of information<br /> * 2 Early life<br /> * 3 Mission<br /> o 3.1 First missionary journey<br /> o 3.2 Council of Jerusalem<br /> + 3.2.1 Paul's visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles<br /> o 3.3 Second missionary journey<br /> o 3.4 Third missionary journey<br /> * 4 Arrest and death<br /> * 5 Writings<br /> o 5.1 Authorship<br /> o 5.2 Paul and Jesus<br /> o 5.3 Holy Spirit<br /> o 5.4 Relationship with Judaism<br /> o 5.5 Resurrection<br /> o 5.6 The World to come<br /> * 6 Speculative views<br /> * 7 See also<br /> * 8 Notes<br /> * 9 References<br /> * 10 External links<br /><br />[edit] Sources of information<br />Events in Paul the Apostle's Life, Acts<br /><br /> * Early life<br /> o Tarsus<br /> o Gamaliel<br /> o Martyrdom of Stephen<br /> * Conversion near Damascus<br /> * First Mission, with Barnabas<br /> o Antioch<br /> o Seleucia<br /> o Cyprus<br /> o Salamis<br /> o Paphos<br /> o Perge<br /> o Antioch in Pisidia<br /> o Konya<br /> o Derbe<br /> o Lystra<br /> o Antalya<br /> * Council of Jerusalem<br /> * Split with Barnabas Acts 15:36-41<br /> * Second Mission, with Silas<br /> o Antioch<br /> o Cilicia<br /> o Derbe, Timothy<br /> o Lystra<br /> o Phrygia<br /> o Galatia, Titus<br /> o Mysia<br /> o Samothrace<br /> o Neapolis<br /> o Philippi<br /> o Amphipolis<br /> o Apollonia<br /> o Thessalonica<br /> o Beroea<br /> o Athens<br /> o Corinth, Priscilla & Aquila<br /> o Cenchreae<br /> o Ephesus<br /> o Syria<br /> o Caesarea<br /> o Jerusalem<br /> * Third Mission, with Silas<br /> o Antioch<br /> o Galatia<br /> o Phrygia<br /> o Ephesus, Apollos<br /> o Macedonia<br /> o Corinth<br /> o Cenchreae<br /> o Macedonia<br /> o Troas<br /> o Assos<br /> o Mytilene<br /> o Chios<br /> o Samos<br /> o Miletus<br /> o Cos<br /> o Rhodes<br /> o Patara<br /> o Tyre<br /> o Ptolemais<br /> o Caesarea<br /> * Arrest & Trials<br /> o Jerusalem<br /> o Caesarea<br /> + Felix<br /> + Festus<br /> + Agrippa II<br /> o Malta Shipwreck<br /> o Rome<br /> o Death<br /> * Epistles<br /> o Romans<br /> o 1 Corinthians<br /> o 2 Corinthians<br /> o Galatians<br /> o Ephesians<br /> o Philippians<br /> o Colossians<br /> o 1 Thess.<br /> o 2 Thess.<br /> o 1 Timothy<br /> o 2 Timothy<br /> o Titus<br /> o Philemon<br /><br />This box: view • talk • edit<br /><br /><br />In trying to reconstruct the events of Paul's life the main sources are Paul's own letters and the Acts of the Apostles, traditionally attributed to St. Luke.[11] Different views are held as to the reliability of the latter. Some scholars, such as Hans Conzelmann and 20th century theologian John Knox (not the 16th century John Knox), dispute the historical accuracy of Acts.[12][13] Even allowing for omissions in Paul's own account, which is found particularly in Galatians, there are many differences between his account and that in Acts.[14] (Please see the full discussion in Acts of the Apostles). The Acts of Paul and the Clementine literature also contain information about Saint Paul.<br /><br />[edit] Early life<br />Saint Paul's conversion, by Jean Fouquet.<br />Saint Paul's conversion, by Jean Fouquet.<br /><br />According to Acts,[15] Paul was born in Tarsus, Cilicia in Asia Minor, or modern-day Turkey, under the name Saul, "an Israelite of the tribe of Benjamin, circumcised on the eighth day" (Philippians 3:5). However, Paul's own letters never mention this as his birthplace, nor is the name "Saul" alluded to. Acts records that Paul was a Roman citizen — a privilege he used a number of times in his defence, appealing against convictions in Judaea to Rome (Acts 22:25 and Acts 27–28). According to Christian tradition, his parents lived in Jish, Galilee.[16] According to Acts 22:3, he studied in Jerusalem under the Rabbi Gamaliel, well known in Paul's time. There is at least some doubt about this story, as Paul writes in Galatians 1:15-17 that he was unknown by face to those in Jerusalem before visiting there as an adult[citation needed]. He described himself as a Pharisee (Philippians 3:5). He supported himself during his travels and while preaching — a fact he alludes to a number of times (e.g., 1 Corinthians 9:13–15). According to Acts 18:3 he worked as a tentmaker.<br /><br />Although Saul was educated as a Pharisee in House of Hillel Halakha under Gamaliel, Epiphanius cites an Ebionite tradition that in order to marry the High Priest's daughter, Paul converted to the Sadduccee faction which controlled the Sanhedrin at the time. He first appears in the pages of the New Testament as a witness to the martyrdom of Stephen (Acts 7:57-8:3). He was, as he described himself, a persistent persecutor of the Church (1 Corinthians 15:9, Galatians 1:13) (almost all of whose members were Jewish or Jewish proselytes), until his experience on the Road to Damascus which resulted in his conversion. Ebionite tradition recorded by Eusebius asserts that he joined the Jesus movement only after his love for the High Priest's daughter was spurned. Paul himself is very disinclined to talk about the precise character of his conversion (Galatians 1:11–24) though he uses it as authority for his independence from the apostles. In Acts there are three accounts of his conversion experience:<br /><br /> * The first is a description of the event itself (Acts 9:1–20) in which he is described as falling to the ground, as a result of a flash of light from the sky, hearing the words "Saul, Saul why are you persecuting me?"<br /> * The second is Paul's witness to the event before the crowd in Jerusalem (Acts 22:1–22).<br /> * The third is his testimony before King Agrippa II (Acts 26:1–24).<br /><br />In the accounts, he is described as being led by those he was traveling with , blinded by the light, to Damascus where his sight was restored by a disciple called Ananias then he was baptized.<br /><br />[edit] Mission<br />Bab Kisan, where Paul is said to have escaped from Damascus.<br />Bab Kisan, where Paul is said to have escaped from Damascus.<br /><br />Following his stay in Damascus after his conversion, where he was baptized,[17] Paul says that he first went to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus (Galatians 1:17). According to Acts, his preaching in the local synagogues got him into trouble there, and he was forced to escape, being let down over the wall in a basket (Acts 9:23). He describes in Galatians, how three years after his conversion, he went to Jerusalem, where he met James, and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days (Galatians 1:13–24). According to Acts, he apparently attempted to join the disciples and was accepted only owing to the intercession of Barnabas — they were all understandably afraid of him as one who had been a persecutor of the Church (Acts 9:26–27). Again, according to Acts, he got into trouble for disputing with "Hellenists" (Koine Greek speaking Jews and Gentile "God-fearers") and so he was sent back to Tarsus.<br /><br />Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.[18] It is not known exactly what happened during these so-called "unknown years," but both Acts and Galatians provide some details.[19] At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch (Acts 11:26).<br /><br />When a famine occurred in Judaea, around 45–46,[20] Paul, along with Barnabas and a Gentile named Titus, journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.[21] According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative centre for Christians, following the dispersion after the death of Stephen. It was at this time in Antioch, Acts reports, the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians."[22]<br /><br />[edit] First missionary journey<br /><br />Paul’s first missionary journey begins in Acts 13 in Antioch in approximately AD 47. During this period the Christian church here grew in prominence partially owing to Jewish Christians fleeing from Jerusalem.[23] The Holy Spirit, speaking through one of the prophets listed in Acts 13:1, identifies Barnabas and Saul to be appointed “for the work which I have called them to.” The group then releases the pair from the church to spread the Gospel into the predominantly Gentile mission field. The significance of the Holy Spirit selecting him can be seen in Galatians 1:1 when Paul states that he is made an apostle “not through man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father.”<br /><br />Traveling via the port of Seleucia Pieria, Barnabas and Saul’s initial destination is the island of Cyprus of which Barnabas had intimate knowledge, as he grew up there Acts 4:36. Preaching throughout the island, it is not until reaching the city of Paphos that they meet the magician and false prophet Bar-Jesus, described by Luke as “full of deceit and all fraud”. The two rebuke the magician, causing him to go blind and, upon seeing this Sergius Paulus, is astonished at the teaching of the Lord.<br />The house of St. Ananias in Damascus<br />The house of St. Ananias in Damascus<br /><br />Once having left Cyprus, Saul exchanges his Hebrew name for the more appropriate Greco-Roman name of Paul for ministering to the Gentiles. It is also here that their helper John Mark departs them - an act which later becomes a source of much tension between Paul and Barnabas and ultimately leading to their split in Acts 15:36-41. The two then set about strategically preaching to major cities as they make their way across the provinces of Asia Minor. Traveling on to Lystra where no mention is made of any God fearing gentiles, it can be assumed that there was most likely no synagogue here.[24] With no formal place to preach in they come across a man who has been crippled from birth. Seeing that the man has faith enough to be healed at Paul's instruction, he gets up and walks. In spite of this the Lystrians are now convinced that the two are the human incarnation of Zeus and Hermes and proceed to sacrifice oxen before them. Paul and Barnabas are so distraught at this that they tear off their clothes and cry out to the people. Pleading with the crowd, the style of preaching becomes more basic as Lystra has no knowledge of God. Paul starts from the basics by stating that God is a living God who made the heavens, earth and seas (Acts 14:15).<br /><br />Paul is then hunted by disgruntled Jews from Antioch and Iconium and is stoned to the point where he is thought to be dead. Amazingly he gets to his feet and flees to Derbe and preaches the word there. He then opts to return to the cities he visited to encourage disciples, establish churches and appoint elders. This emphasis on the role of the whole church is strengthened once at home in Antioch where he finally gathers together the unified church to report to them on all his experiences. Here he summarises the aim of his journey well, to “give God the honor and the glory” (Acts 15:4)<br /><br />Part of this first missionary journey can be walked today in the Saint Paul Trail, a long-distance footpath in Turkey.<br /><br />[edit] Council of Jerusalem<br /><br /> Main article: Council of Jerusalem<br /><br />According to Acts 15, Paul attended a meeting of the apostles and elders held in Jerusalem where they discussed the question of circumcision of Gentile Christians and whether Christians should follow the Mosaic law. Traditionally, this meeting is called the Council of Jerusalem,[25] though nowhere is it called so in the text of the New Testament. Paul and the apostles apparently met at Jerusalem several times. Unfortunately, there is some difficulty in determining the sequence of the meetings and exact course of events.[26] Some Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, some meetings are mentioned in Paul's letters, and some appear to be mentioned in both.[27] For example, it has been suggested that the Jerusalem visit for famine relief implied in Acts 11:27–30 corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only) narrated in Galatians 1:18–20.[27] In Galatians 2:1, Paul describes a "second visit" to Jerusalem as a private occasion, whereas Acts 15 describes a public meeting in Jerusalem addressed by James at its conclusion. Thus, while most[27][28] think that Galatians 2:1 corresponds to the Council of Jerusalem in Acts 15, others[who?] think that Paul is referring here to the meeting in Acts 11 (the "famine visit"). Other conjectures have been offered: the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than the first visit;[29] If there was a public rather than a private meeting, it seems likely that it took place after Galatians was written.[30]<br /><br />According to Acts, Paul and Barnabas were appointed to go to Jerusalem to speak with the apostles and elders and were welcomed by them.[31] The key question raised (in both Acts and Galatians and which is not in dispute) was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised (Acts 15:2ff; Galatians 2:1ff). Paul states that he had attended "in response to a revelation and to lay before them the gospel that I preached among the Gentiles" (Galatians 2:2). Peter publicly reaffirmed a decision he had made previously (Acts 10-11), proclaiming: "[God] put no difference between us and them, purifying their hearts by faith" (Acts 15:9), echoing an earlier statement: "Of a truth I perceive that God is no respecter of persons" (Acts 10:34). James concurred: "We should not trouble those of the Gentiles who are turning to God" (Acts 15:19–21), and a letter (later known as the Apostolic Decree) was sent back with Paul to the Gentiles who Honoured God's name enjoining them from idolatry, from bloodshed, from unkashered meat, and from sexual immorality (Acts 15:29), which some consider related to Noahide Law[32] while others instead see a connection to Leviticus 17 and 18.[33]<br /><br />Despite the agreement they achieved at the meeting as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch"[34] over his reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch. Paul later wrote: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong" and said to the apostle: "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?" (Galatians 2:11–14). Paul also mentioned that even Barnabas sided with Peter.[35] On the incident, the Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers: The Incident at Antioch states: "St. Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that St. Peter saw the justice of the rebuke." However, L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity states: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return."[36] (see also Pauline Christianity). Acts does not record this event, saying only that "some time later," Paul decided to leave Antioch (usually considered the beginning of his "Second Missionary Journey," (Acts 15:36–18:22) with the object of visiting the believers in the towns where he and Barnabas had preached earlier, but this time without Barnabas. At this point the Galatians witness ceases.<br /><br />[edit] Paul's visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles<br /><br />This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.[27]<br />Acts Epistles<br /><br /> * First visit to Jerusalem (Acts 9:26–27)<br /> o after Damascus conversion<br /> o preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas<br /><br /> * Second visit to Jerusalem (Acts 11:29–30)<br /> o For famine relief<br /><br /> * Third visit to Jerusalem (Acts 15:1–19)<br /> o With Barnabas<br /> o "Council of Jerusalem"<br /><br /> * Fourth visit to Jerusalem (Acts 18:21–22)<br /> o To "keep the feast" (Acts 18:21)<br /> * Fifth visit to Jerusalem (Acts 21:17ff)<br /> o Paul arrested<br /><br /> <br /><br /> * No visit to Jerusalem immediately after conversion (Galatians 1:17–18)<br /> * First visit to Jerusalem (Galatians 1:18–20)<br /> o Sees only Cephas (Peter) and James<br /><br /> * Second visit to Jerusalem (Galatians 2:1–10)<br /> o With Barnabas and Titus<br /> o Possibly the "Council of Jerusalem"<br /> o Paul agrees to "remember the poor"<br /> o Followed by confrontation with Peter in Antioch (Galatians 2:11–14)<br /><br /> * Third visit to Jerusalem (Romans 15:25ff, 2 Corinthians 8–9, 1 Corinthians 16:1–3)<br /> o Paul delivers the collection for the poor<br /><br />[edit] Second missionary journey<br />Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th-early 7th century (Musée de Cluny)<br />Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th-early 7th century (Musée de Cluny)<br /><br />And following a dispute between Paul and Barnabas over whether they should take John Mark with them, they go on separate journeys (Acts 15:36–41) — Barnabas with John Mark, and Paul with Silas.<br /><br />Following Acts 16:1–18:22, Paul and Silas go to Derbe and then Lystra. They are joined by Timothy, the son of a Jewish woman and a Greek man. According to Acts 16:3, Paul circumcises Timothy before leaving.[37]<br /><br />They continue to Phrygia and northern Galatia to Troas, when, inspired by a vision they set off for Macedonia. At Philippi they meet and bring to faith a wealthy woman named Lydia of Thyatira, they then baptize her and her household; there Paul is also arrested and badly beaten. According to Acts, Paul then sets off for Thessalonica.[38] This accords with Paul's own account (1 Thessalonians 2:2), though, given that he had been in Philippi only "some days," the church must have been founded by someone other than Paul. According to Acts, Paul then comes to Athens where he gives his speech in the Areopagus; in this speech, he tells Athenians that the "Unknown God" to whom they had a shrine is in fact known, as the God who had raised Jesus from the dead. (Acts 17:16–34)<br />Greek Orthodox Cathedral of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth, Greece<br />Greek Orthodox Cathedral of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth, Greece<br /><br />Thereafter Paul travelled to Corinth, where he settled for three years and where he may have written 1 Thessalonians which is estimated to have been written in 50 or 51.[11] At Corinth, (Acts 18:12–17) the "Jews united" and charged Paul with "persuading the people to worship God in ways contrary to the law"; the proconsul Gallio then judged that it was an internal religious dispute and dismissed the charges. "Then all of them (Other ancient authorities read all the Greeks) seized Sosthenes, the official of the synagogue, and beat him in front of the tribunal. But Gallio paid no attention to any of these things."[39] From an inscription in Delphi that mentions Gallio held office from 51–52 or 52–53,[11] the year of the hearing must have been in this time period, which is the only fixed date in the chronology of Paul's life.[40]<br /><br />[edit] Third missionary journey<br /><br />Following this hearing, Paul continued his preaching, usually called his "third missionary journey" (Acts 18:23–21:26), traveling again through Asia Minor and Macedonia, to Antioch and back. He caused a great uproar in the theatre in Ephesus, where local silversmiths feared loss of income due to Paul's activities. Their income relied on the sale of silver statues (idols) of the goddess Artemis, whom they worshipped; the resulting mob almost killed Paul (Acts 19:21–41) and his companions. Later, as Paul was passing near Ephesus on his way to Jerusalem, Paul chose not to stop, since he was in haste to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost.[41] The church here, however, was so highly regarded by Paul that he called the elders to Miletus to meet with him (Acts 20:16–38).<br /><br />[edit] Arrest and death<br /><br />According to Acts 21:17–26, upon his arrival in Jerusalem, the Apostle Paul provided a detailed account to James regarding his ministry among the Gentiles, it states further that all the Elders were present. James and the Elders praised God for the report which they received. Afterward the elders informed him of rumors that had been circulating, which stated that he was teaching Jews to forsake observance of the Mosaic law, and the customs of the Jews; including circumcision. To rebut these rumors, the elders asked Paul to join with four other men in performing the vow of purification according to Mosaic law, in order to disprove the accusations of the Jews. Paul agreed, and proceeded to perform the vow. See Also: Relationship with Judaism<br />A Greek language inscription from Herod's Temple, late 1st century BC. It warns gentiles to refrain from entering the Temple enclosure, on pain of death.<br />A Greek language inscription from Herod's Temple, late 1st century BC. It warns gentiles to refrain from entering the Temple enclosure, on pain of death.<br /><br />Some of the Jews had seen Paul accompanied by a Gentile, and assumed that he had brought the Gentile into the temple, which if he had been found guilty of such, would have carried the death penalty.[42] The Jews were on the verge of killing Paul when Roman soldiers intervened. The Roman commander took Paul into custody to be scourged and questioned, and imprisoned him, first in Jerusalem, and then in Caesarea.<br /><br />Paul claimed his right as a Roman citizen to be tried in Rome, but owing to the inaction of the governor Antonius Felix, Paul languished in confinement at Caesarea for two years. When a new governor (Porcius Festus) took office, Paul was sent by sea to Rome. During this trip to Rome, Paul was shipwrecked on Malta, where Acts states that he preached the Gospel, and the people converted to Christianity. The Roman Catholic church has named the Apostle Paul as the patron saint of Malta in observance of his work there. It is thought that Paul continued his journey by sea to Syracuse, on the Italian island of Sicily before eventually going to Rome. According to Acts 28:30–31, Paul spent another two years in Rome under house arrest, where he continued to preach the gospel and teach about Jesus being the Christ.<br /><br />Of his detention in Rome, Philippians provides some additional support. It was clearly written from prison and references to the "praetorian guard" and "Caesar's household," which may suggest that it was written from Rome.<br /><br />Whether Paul died in Rome, or was able to go to Spain as he had hoped, as noted in his letter to the Romans (Romans 15:22–27), is uncertain. 1 Clement reports this about Paul:[43]<br /><br /> "By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."<br /><br />Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martydom is the most reasonable interpretation."[44]<br /><br />Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the fourth century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, may reflect the day of his martyrdom, other sources have articulated the tradition that Peter and Paul died on the same day (and possibly the same year).[45] Some hold the view that he could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed (2 Timothy 4:13). A Roman Catholic tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome (now in the process of being excavated). Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. However, Bede's use of the word "relic" was not limited to corporal remains.<br /><br />[edit] Writings<br /><br /> Main article: Authorship of the Pauline Epistles<br /><br />[edit] Authorship<br />Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas).<br />Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas).<br /><br />Saint Paul is the second most prolific contributor to the New Testament (after Luke, whose two books amount to nearly a third of the New Testament). Thirteen letters are attributed to him with varying degrees of confidence.[46] The letters are written in Koine Greek and it may be that he employed an amanuensis, only occasionally writing himself.[47] The undisputed Pauline epistles contain the earliest systematic account of Christian doctrine, and provide information on the life of the infant Church. They are arguably the oldest part of the New Testament. Paul also appears in the pages of the Acts of the Apostles, attributed to Luke, so that it is possible to compare the account of his life in the Acts with his own account in his various letters. His letters are largely written to churches which he had founded or visited; he was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Macedonia, mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome bringing the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth with him. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians should believe and how they should live. He does not tell his correspondents (or the modern reader) much about the life of Jesus; his most explicit references are to the Last Supper (1 Corinthians 11:17-34) and the crucifixion and resurrection (1 Corinthians 15 1 Corinthians 15). His specific references to Jesus' teaching are likewise sparse (1 Corinthians 7:10-11, 9:14), raising the question, still disputed, as to how consistent his account of the faith is with that of the four canonical Gospels, Acts, and the Epistle of James. The view that Paul's Christ is very different from the historical Jesus has been expounded by Adolf Harnack among many others. Nevertheless, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus of Christian spirituality.<br /><br />Of the thirteen letters traditionally attributed to Paul and included in the Western New Testament canon, there is little or no dispute that Paul actually wrote at least seven, those being Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Hebrews, which was ascribed to him in antiquity, was questioned even then, never having an ancient attribution, and in modern times is considered by most experts as not by Paul (see also Antilegomena). The authorship of the remaining six Pauline epistles is disputed to varying degrees.<br /><br />The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as 'the image of the invisible God,' a Christology found elsewhere only in St. John's gospel. On the other hand, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. More problematic is Ephesians, a very similar letter to Colossians, but which reads more like a manifesto than a letter. It is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique; it lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the grudging reference in 1 Corinthians 7:8-9. Finally it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now past.[48] The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul of Tarsus's thinking.<br /><br />The Pastoral Epistles, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus have likewise been put in question as Pauline works. Three main reasons are advanced: first, their difference in vocabulary, style and theology from Paul's acknowledged writings; secondly, the difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as we have it.[49] They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter. Finally, the concerns expressed are very much the practical ones as to how a church should function. They are more about maintenance than about mission.<br /><br />2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds, with scholars noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus.<br /><br />[edit] Paul and Jesus<br />Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia).<br />Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia).<br /><br /> Main article: Atonement<br /><br />Little can be deduced about the historical life of Jesus from Paul's letters. He mentions specifically the Last Supper (1 Corinthians 11:23ff), his death by crucifixion (1 Corinthians 2:2; Philippians 2:8), and his resurrection (Philippians 2:9). In addition, Paul states that Jesus was a Jew of the line of David (Romans 1:3) who was betrayed (1 Corinthians 11:12). Paul concentrates instead on the nature of Christians' relationship with Christ and, in particular, on Christ's saving work. In Mark's gospel, Jesus is recorded as saying that he was to "give up his life as a ransom for many."[50] Paul's account of this idea of a saving act is more fully articulated in various places in his letters, most notably in his letter to the Romans.<br /><br />What Christ has achieved for those who believe in him is variously described: as sinners under the law, they are "justified by his grace as a gift"; they are "redeemed" by Jesus who was put forward by God as expiation; they are "reconciled" by his death; his death was a propitiatory or expiatory sacrifice or a ransom paid. The gift (grace) is to be received in faith (Romans 3:24; Romans 5:9).<br /><br />Justification derives from the law courts.[51] Those who are justified are acquitted of an offence. Since the sinner is guilty, he or she can only be acquitted by someone else, Jesus, standing in for them, which has led many Christians to believe in the teaching known as the doctrine of penal substitution. The sinner is, in Paul's words "justified by faith" (Romans 5:1), that is, by adhering to Christ, the sinner becomes at one with Christ in his death and resurrection (hence the word "atonement"). Acquittal, however, is achieved not on the grounds that we share in Christ's innocence, but on the grounds of his sacrifice (crucifixion), i.e., his innocent undergoing of punishment on behalf of sinners who should have suffered divine retribution for their sins. They deserved to be punished and he took their punishment. They are justified by his death, and now "so much more we are saved by him from divine retribution" (Romans 5:9).<br /><br />For an understanding of the meaning of faith as that which justifies, Paul turns to Abraham, who trusted God's promise that he would be father of many nations. Abraham preceded the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. Abraham could not, of course, have faith in the living Christ but, in Paul's view, "the gospel was preached to him beforehand" (Galatians 3:8); this is in line with Paul's belief in the pre-existence of Christ (cf. Philippians 2:5–11.[52]<br /><br />Within the last three decades, a number of theologians have put forward a "new perspective" on Paul's doctrine of justification, and even more specifically on what he says about justification by faith. Justification by faith means God accepts Gentiles in addition to Jews, since both believe in God. Paul writes in his letter to the Romans, "For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from observing the law. Is God the God of Jews only? Is he not the God of Gentiles too? Yes, of Gentiles too, since there is only one God, who will justify the circumcised by faith and the uncircumcised through that same faith" (Romans 3:28-30). Faith is the central component of Paul's doctrine of justification -- it means that Gentiles don't need to become Israelites when they convert to Christianity, because God is not just the God of one nation, but Gentile and Jew alike.[53]<br />The St. Paul column (Valletta, Malta).<br />The St. Paul column (Valletta, Malta).<br /><br />Redemption has a different origin, that of the freeing of slaves; it is similar in character as a transaction to the paying of a ransom, (cf. Mark 10:45) though the circumstances are different. Money was paid in order to set free a slave who was in the ownership of another. Here the price was the costly act of Christ's death. On the other hand, no price was paid to anyone — Paul does not suggest, for instance, that the price be paid to the devil — though this has been suggested by learned writers, ancient and modern,[54] such as Origen and St. Augustine, as a reversal of the Fall by which the devil gained power over humankind.<br /><br />A third expression, reconciliation, is about the making of peace (Colossians 1:20 and Romans 5:9), another variant of the same theme. Elsewhere (Ephesians 2:14) he writes of Christ breaking down the dividing wall between Jew and Gentile, which the law constituted.<br /><br />Sacrifice is an idea often elided with justification, but carries with it either the notion of appeasing the wrath of God (propitiation) or dealing with sin (expiation).<br /><br />As to how a person appropriates this gift, Paul writes of a mystical union with Christ through baptism: "we who have been baptised into Christ Jesus were baptised into his death" (Romans 6:4). He writes also of our being "in Christ Jesus" and alternately, of "Christ in you, the hope of glory." Thus, the objection that one person cannot be punished on behalf of another is met with the idea of the identification of the Christian with Christ through baptism.<br /><br />These expressions, some of which are to be found in the course of the same exposition, have been interpreted by some scholars, such as the mediaeval teacher Peter Abelard and, much more recently, Hastings Rashdall,[55] as metaphors for the effects of Christ's death upon those who followed him. This is known as the "subjective theory of the atonement." On this view, rather than writing a systematic theology, Paul is trying to express something inexpressible. According to Ian Markham, on the other hand, the letter to the Romans is "muddled."[56]<br /><br />But others, ancient and modern, Protestant and Catholic, have sought to elaborate from his writing objective theories of the Atonement on which they have, however, disagreed. The doctrine of justification by faith alone was the major source of the division of western Christianity known as the Protestant Reformation which took place in the sixteenth century. Justification by faith was set against salvation by works of the law — in this case, the acquiring of indulgences from the Church and even such good works as the corporal works of mercy. The result of the dispute, which undermined the system of endowed prayers and the doctrine of purgatory, contributed to the creation of Protestant churches in Western Europe, set against the Roman Catholic Church. Solifidianism (from sola fide, the Latin for "faith alone"), the name often given to these views, is associated with the works of Martin Luther (1483 — 1546) and his followers.<br /><br />The various doctrines of the atonement have been associated with such theologians as Anselm;[57] John Calvin;[58] and more recently Gustaf Aulén;[59] none found their way into the Creeds. The substitutionary theory (above), in particular, has fiercely divided Christendom; some pronouncing it essential and others repugnant.[60] (In law, no one can be punished instead of another and the punishment of the innocent is a prime example of injustice — which tells against too precise an interpretation of the atonement as a legal act.)[61]<br /><br />Further, because salvation could not be achieved by merit, Paul lays some stress on the notion of its being a free gift, a matter of Grace. Whereas grace is most often associated specifically with the Holy Spirit, in St. Paul's writing, grace is received through Jesus (Romans 1:5), from God through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus (Romans 3:24, and especially in 2 Corinthians 13:14). On the other hand, the Spirit he describes is the Spirit of Christ (see below). The notion of free gift, not the subject of entitlement, has been associated with belief in predestination and, more controversially, double predestination: that God has chosen whom He wills to have mercy on and those whose will He has hardened (Romans 9:18f.).<br /><br />Paul's concern with what Christ had done, as described above, was matched by his desire to say also who Jesus was (and is). At the beginning of his letter to the Romans, he describes Jesus as the "Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead"; in the letter to the Colossians, he is much more explicit, describing Jesus as "the image of the invisible God," (Colossians 1:15) as rich and exalted a picture of Jesus as can be found anywhere in the New Testament (which is one reason why some doubt its authenticity)[62] On the other hand, in the undisputedly Pauline letter to the Church at Philippi, he describes Jesus as "in the form of God" who "did not count equality with God as a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men he humbled himself and became obedient to death, even death on a cross…" (Philippians 2:5-7).<br /><br />[edit] Holy Spirit<br /><br />In considering the manifestations of the Spirit, Paul is varied in his instructions. Thus, when discussing the gift of tongues in his first letter to the Corinthians (1 Corinthians 14), as against the unintelligible words of ecstasy, he commends, by contrast, intelligibility and order.<br /><br />Paul argues that not all things permissible are good; he condemns eating meats that have been offered to pagan idols, frequenting pagan temples, and orgiastic feasting. On the contrary, he calls the Spirit a uniting force, manifesting Himself through the common purpose expressed in the exercise of their different gifts (1 Corinthians 12) He compares the Christian community to a human body, with its different limbs and organs, and the Spirit as the Spirit of Christ. The gifts range from administration to teaching, encouragement to healing, prophecy to the working of miracles. The fruits are the virtues of love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, faithfulness, gentleness and self control (Galatians 5:22). Love is the "most excellent" of all (1 Corinthians 13).<br /><br />Furthermore, the new life is the life of the Spirit, as against the life of the flesh, which Spirit is the Spirit of Christ, so that one becomes a son of God. God is our Father and we are fellow heirs of Christ (Romans 8:14).<br /><br />[edit] Relationship with Judaism<br /><br /> See also: Circumcision controversy in early Christianity and Christianity and Judaism<br /><br />Paul, himself a circumcised Jew, appeared to praise Jewish circumcision in Romans 3:1–2, but says that circumcision doesn't matter in 1 Corinthians 7:19. In Galatians, meanwhile, he accuses those who promote circumcision of wanting to make a good showing in the flesh and boasting or glorying in the flesh in Galatians 6:11–13.[improper synthesis?] He also questions the authority of the law, and though he may have opposed observance by Gentiles he also opposed Peter for his partial observance. In a later letter, Philippians 3:2, he is reported as warning Christians to beware the "mutilation"[63] and to "watch out for those dogs." He writes that there is neither Jew nor Greek, but Christ is all and in all. On the other hand, in Acts, he is described as submitting to taking a Nazirite vow, [64] and earlier to having had Timothy circumcised to placate "certain Jews". [65] He also wrote that among the Jews he became as a Jew in order to win Jews (1 Corinthians 9:20) and to the Romans: "So the law is holy, and the commandment is holy and just and good" (Romans 7:12).<br /><br />However, considerable disagreement at the time and subsequently has been raised as to the significance of Works of the Law.[66] In the same letter in which Paul writes of justification by faith, he says of the Gentiles: "It is not by hearing the law, but by doing it that men will be justified (same word) by God." (Romans 2:12) Those who think Paul was consistent have judged him not to be a Solifidianist himself; others hold that he is merely demonstrating that both Jews and Gentiles are in the same condition of sin.<br /><br />Some scholars find that Paul's agreement to perform the vow of purification noted in Acts 21:18–26 and his circumcision of Timothy noted in Acts 16:3, are difficult to reconcile with his personally expressed attitude to the Law in portions of Galatians and Philippians. For example, J. W. McGarvey's Commentary on Acts 21:18–26[67] states:<br />“ This I confess to be the most difficult passage in Acts to fully understand, and to reconcile with the teaching of Paul on the subject of the Mosaic law. ”<br /><br />And his Commentary on Acts 16:3[68] states:<br />“ The circumcision of Timothy is quite a remarkable event in the history of Paul, and presents a serious injury as to the consistency of his teaching and of his practice, in reference to this Abrahamic rite. It demands of us, at this place, as full consideration as our limits will admit. ”<br /><br />This is generally reconciled by arguing that Paul's attitude to the Law was flexible, for instance the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia[69] writes:<br />“ Paul, on the other hand, not only did not object to the observance of the Mosaic Law, as long as it did not interfere with the liberty of the Gentiles, but he conformed to its prescriptions when occasion required (1 Corinthians 9:20). ”<br /><br />The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia article on Gentile: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah notes the following reconciliation:<br />“ R. Emden, in a remarkable apology for Christianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam" (pp. 32b-34b, Hamburg, 1752), gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the Gentiles to the seven moral laws of Noah and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic law — which explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding the laws of Moses and the Sabbath. ”<br /><br />E. P. Sanders in 1977[70] reframed the context to make law-keeping and good works a sign of being in the Covenant (marking out the Jews as the people of God) rather than deeds performed in order to accomplish salvation (so-called Legalism (theology)), a pattern of religion he termed "covenantal nomism." If Sanders' perspective is valid, the traditional Protestant understanding of the doctrine of justification may have needed rethinking, for the interpretive framework of Martin Luther was called into question.<br /><br />Sanders' work has since been taken up by Professor James Dunn[71] and N.T. Wright,[72] Anglican Bishop of Durham, and the New Perspective. Wright, noting the apparent discrepancy between Romans and Galatians, the former being much more positive about the continuing covenantal relationship between God and his ancient people, than the latter, contends that works are not insignificant (Romans 2:13ff) and that Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.[citation needed]<br /><br />[edit] Resurrection<br /><br /> See also: Resurrection of the dead and 1 Corinthians 15<br /><br />Paul appears to develop his ideas in response to the particular congregation to whom he is writing (1 Corinthians 9:19-23). He writes of the hope given to all who belong to Christ, including those who have already died and been baptised vicariously by others on their behalf so that they may be included among the saved (1 Corinthians 15:29) (whether or not Paul of Tarsus approved of the practice, he was apparently prepared to use it as part of his argument in favour of the resurrection of the dead).<br /><br />[edit] The World to come<br /><br /> See also: Second Coming and End times<br /><br />Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and, secondly, when they should expect the end. Paul regarded the age as passing and, in such difficult times, he therefore encouraged marriage as a means of happiness. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive (1 Thessalonians 4:16ff). This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages his hearers to expect a delay.[73] The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of lawlessness (2 Thessalonians 2:3ff) whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.<br /><br />The delay in the coming of the end has been interpreted in different ways: on one view, Paul of Tarsus and the early Christians were simply mistaken; on another, that of Austin Farrer, his presentation of a single ending can be interpreted to accommodate the fact that endings occur all the time and that, subjectively, we all stand an instant from judgement. The delay is also accounted for by God's patience ((2 Thessalonians 2:6).<br /><br />As for the form of the end, the Catholic Encyclopedia presents two distinct ideas. First, universal judgement, with neither the good nor the wicked omitted (Romans 14:10–12), nor even the angels (1 Corinthians 6:3). Second, and more controversially, judgment will be according to faith and works, mentioned concerning sinners (2 Corinthians 11:15), the just (2 Timothy 4:14), and men in general (Romans 2:6–9).<br /><br />[edit] Speculative views<br />The conversion on the way to Damascus, by Caravaggio.<br />The conversion on the way to Damascus, by Caravaggio.<br /><br /> Main article: Pauline Christianity<br /><br />Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton and an authority on Gnosticism, argues that Paul was a Gnostic [74] and that the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries written to rebut this. Pagels maintains that the majority of the Christian churches in the second century went with the majority of the middle class in opposing the trend toward equality for women. By the year 200, the majority of Christian communities endorsed as canonical the "pseudo-Pauline" letter to Timothy. That letter, according to Pagels, stresses and exaggerates the antifeminist element in Paul's views: "Let a woman learn in silence in all submissiveness. I permit no woman to teach or have authority over men; she is to keep silent." She believes the letters to the Colossians and to the Ephesians, which order women to "be subject in everything to their husbands," do not express what she says were Paul's very favorable attitudes toward women, but also were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries.<br /><br />Theologian Robert Cramer agrees that the "pseudo-Pauline" epistles were written to marginalize women, especially in the church and in marriage::<br /><br /> Since it is now widely concluded that the Pastoral Epistles were written around 115 AD, these words were written most likely about 50 years after Paul's martyrdom. Considering the similarity between 1 Corinthians 14:35 and 1 Timothy 2:11-12, conclusions that I and others continue to draw are:<br /><br /> 1. that Paul wrote the bulk of what was in 1 Corinthians but that he did not write 1 Timothy, and<br /> 2. that around 115 AD, the writer of 1 Timothy or a group associated with him added the 1 Corinthians 14:33-36 pericope to the body of letters that later became 1 Corinthians.<br /><br /> In this scenario this would have been done in part to lend further authority to a later (or more culturally acceptable) teaching that marginalized women. [75]<br /><br />Father Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, O.P., in the New Jerome Biblical Commentary, agrees that the verses not favorable to women were "post-Pauline interpolations":<br /><br /> 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 are not a Corinthian slogan, as some have argued…, but a post-Pauline interpolation…. Not only is the appeal to the law (possibly Genesis 3:16) un-Pauline, but the verses contradict 1 Corinthians 11:5. The injunctions reflect the misogyny of 1 Timothy 2:11-14 and probably stem from the same circle. Some mss. place these verses after 40. [76]<br /><br />Talmudic scholar Hyam Maccoby contends that the Paul as described in the Book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Additionally, the speeches of Paul, as recorded in Acts, have been argued to show a different turn of mind. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit.<br /><br />On the other hand, according to Maccoby, there are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, but Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts. F.C.Baur (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany and founder of the so-called Tübingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the apostle to the Gentiles, was in violent opposition to the older disciples. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.<br /><br />Maccoby theorizes that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributes the origins of Christian anti-Semitism to Paul and claims that Paul's view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects.[77]<br /><br />Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University at Long Beach argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.[78] Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman of Agrippa."[79] Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in Romans, 16:11 where Paul writes, "greet Herodion, my kinsman." This is a minority view in the academic community.<br /><br />Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson, who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus". [80] Howard Brenton's play Paul also takes a sceptical account as to his conversion.<br /><br />[edit] See also<br /><br /> * Achaichus<br /> * Pauline Epistles<br /> * Authorship of the Pauline Epistles<br /> * Christian mystics<br /> * New Covenant<br /> * Old Testament: Christian views of the Law<br /> * Persecution of Christians in the New Testament<br /> * Pauline Christianity<br /> * Persecution of religion in ancient Rome<br /><br />[edit] Notes<br /><br /> 1. ^ Bauer lexicon; Acts 13:9, from "The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ: According to the Received Greek Text" (University Press, Cambridge 1876)<br /> 2. ^ Romans 11:13, Galatians 2:8<br /> 3. ^ "The Canon Debate," McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "For Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man (pontifex maximus!) who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of first-century Christianity. James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum. But Peter, as shown particularly by the Antioch episode in Gal 2, had both a care to hold firm to his Jewish heritage, which Paul lacked, and an openness to the demands of developing Christianity, which James lacked. John might have served as such a figure of the center holding together the extremes, but if the writings linked with his name are at all indicative of his own stance he was too much of an individualist to provide such a rallying point. Others could link the developing new religion more firmly to its founding events and to Jesus himself. But none of them, including the rest of the twelve, seem to have played any role of continuing significance for the whole sweep of Christianity—though James the brother of John might have proved an exception had he been spared." [Italics original]<br /> 4. ^ The Complete Gospels, Robert J. Miller ed., notes on Matthew 26:48: "The fact that Judas needs to use a sign indicates that Jesus was not known by face in Jerusalem." Presumably, at that time, Paul was in Jerusalem studying under the famous Pharisee Gamaliel.<br /> 5. ^ Acts 9:1-31, 22:1-22, 26:9-24<br /> 6. ^ Galatians 1:11–12<br /> 7. ^ Galatians 6:11, Romans 16:22, 1 Corinthians 16:21, Colossians 4:18, 2 Thessalonians 3:17, Philippians 1:19<br /> 8. ^ Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point [Galatians 6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thessalonians 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries… In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."<br /> 9. ^ 2 Thessalonians 2:2; 3:17<br /> 10. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F.L. Lucas (Oxford) entry on St. Paul<br /> 11. ^ a b c Laymon, Charles M. The Interpreter's Eighteen-Volume Commentary on the Bible (Abingdon Press, Nashville 1871) ISBN 0687192994<br /> 12. ^ Walton, Steve (2000). Leadership and Lifestyle: The Portrait of Paul in the Miletus Speech and 1 Thessalonians. Cambridge University Press, 3. ISBN 0521780063. <br /> 13. ^ Hare, Douglas R. A. (1987), "Introduction", in Knocks, John, Chapters in a Life of Paul (Revised ed.), Mercer University Press, pp. x, ISBN 0865542813, <http://books.google.com/books?id=g_42mQjLOVsC&pg=PR10&vq=%22proper+historical+method+requires+us%22&dq=paul+primary+sources+acts+epistles&as_brr=3&sig=RvCwlMrXfqLVQ91D-2OTOOwRWm8> <br /> 14. ^ Maccoby, Hyam (1998). The mythmaker, Barnes and Noble ed., Barnes and Noble, 4. ISBN 0760707871. <br /> 15. ^ Chapters 9:30, 11:25 and 22:3<br /> 16. ^ "Galilee villages launch campaign to attract Christian pilgrims", Haaretz - Israel News]<br /> 17. ^ Hengel, Martin; Anna Maria Schwemer (1997). Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years, trans. John Bowden, Westminster John Knox Press, 43. ISBN 0664257364. <br /> 18. ^ Galatians 2:1–10<br /> 19. ^ Barnett, Paul The Birth Of Christianity: The First Twenty Years (Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2005) ISBN 0802827810 p. 200<br /> 20. ^ Ogg, George, Chronology of the New Testament in Peake's Commentary on the Bible (Nelson) 1963)<br /> 21. ^ Barnett p. 83<br /> 22. ^ Acts 11:26<br /> 23. ^ [Gundry, R.H, A Survey of the New Testament 3rd edition (Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 1994)]<br /> 24. ^ [Kistemaker, S.J, Acts (New Testament Commentary; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990)]<br /> 25. ^ for example see the title in Acts 15 in the NIV<br /> 26. ^ see below<br /> 27. ^ a b c d White, L. Michael (2004). From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins, 148–149. ISBN 0060526556. <br /> 28. ^ Raymond E. Brown in Introduction to the New Testament argues that they are the same event but each from a different viewpoint with its own bias.<br /> 29. ^ Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit, F. F. Bruce, Paternoster 1980, p.151<br /> 30. ^ Ogg, George (ibid) p. 731<br /> 31. ^ Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament has the Western version of 15:2: "for Paul spoke maintaining firmly that they should stay as they were when converted; but those who had come from Jerusalem ordered them, Paul and Barnabas and certain others, to go up to Jerusalem to the apostles and elders that they might be judged before them about this question."<br /> 32. ^ For example, Augustine's Contra Faustum 32.13, see also Council of Jerusalem<br /> 33. ^ Joseph Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries), Yale University Press (December 2, 1998), ISBN 0300139829, chapter V<br /> 34. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers see section titled: "The Incident At Antioch"<br /> 35. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers: "On their arrival Peter, who up to this had eaten with the Gentiles, "withdrew and separated himself, fearing them who were of the circumcision," and by his example drew with him not only the other Jews, but even Barnabas, Paul's fellow-labourer."<br /> 36. ^ White, L. Michael (2004). From Jesus to Christianity. HarperSanFrancisco, 170. ISBN 0–06–052655–6. <br /> 37. ^ McGarvey: "Yet we see him in the case before us, circumcising Timothy with his own hand, and this 'on account of certain Jews who were in those quarters.'"<br /> 38. ^ Map of Paul's Second Missionary Journey<br /> 39. ^ Acts 18:17 NRSV<br /> 40. ^ Pauline Chronology: His Life and Missionary Work, from Catholic Resources by Felix Just, S.J.<br /> 41. ^ Map of Paul's Third Missionary Journey<br /> 42. ^ Expositor's Bible Commentary (Zondervan, 1978–1992), Commentary on Acts 21:27–29<br /> 43. ^ The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:5–6, translated by J.B. Lightfoot in Lightfoot, Joseph Barber (1890). The Apostolic Fathers: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. Macmillan, 274. OCLC 54248207. <br /> 44. ^ Brown, Raymond Edward; John Paul Meier (1983). Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 124. ISBN 0809125323. <br /> 45. ^ Lactanius, John Chrysostom, Sulpicius Severus all agree with Eusebius' claim that Peter and Paul died under Nero. Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II; John Chrysostom, Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4; Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29<br /> 46. '^ Hebrews authorship by Paul was questioned as early as Origen (circa. 200); it has no early attribution; the almost unanimous views of scholars is that it is not Pauline<br /> 47. ^ see Galatians 6:11, Romans 16:22, 1 Corinthians 16:21, Colossians 4:18, Thessalonians&verse=3:17&src=NIV 2 Thessalonians 3:17, Philemon 1:19<br /> 48. ^ Brown, R.E., The Churches the Apostles left behind p.48.<br /> 49. ^ Barrett, C.K. the Pastoral Epistles p.4ff.<br /> 50. ^ Mark 10:45<br /> 51. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian church (Oxford 1958) article on Justification<br /> 52. ^ Hanson A.T., Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology (SPCK 1974) p. 64<br /> 53. ^ Gathercole Simon, "What Did Paul Really Mean?" (Christianity Today, 2007)<br /> 54. ^ Christus Victor, Gustaf Aulen (SPCK 1931)<br /> 55. ^ Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919).<br /> 56. ^ Markham I.S., in Theological Liberalism: Creative and Critical ed. J'annine Jobling & Ian Markham<br /> 57. ^ Cur Deus Homo'; Dillistone (ibid.) p. 190 ff<br /> 58. ^ (ibid.) p. 195ff<br /> 59. ^ (ibid.) p. 102<br /> 60. ^ (see penal substitution<br /> 61. ^ (ibid.) p. 214<br /> 62. ^ R.E. Brown The Churches the Apostles left behind (Chapman 1984 p. 47f<br /> 63. ^ http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/strongs.pl?strongs=2699 Strong's G2699<br /> 64. ^ McGarvey on Acts 21: "It is evident, from the transaction before us, as observed above, that James and the brethren in Jerusalem regarded the offering of sacrifices as at least innocent; for they approved the course of the four Nazarites, and urged Paul to join with them in the service, though it required them to offer sacrifices, and even sin-offerings. They could not, indeed, very well avoid this opinion, since they admitted the continued authority of the Mosaic law. Though disagreeing with them as to the ground of their opinion, as in reference to the other customs, Paul evidently admitted the opinion itself, for he adopted their advice, and paid the expense of the sacrifices which the four Nazarites offered"; Catholic Encyclopedia: Nazarite: "From Acts (21:23-24) we learn that the early Jewish Christians occasionally took the temporary Nazarite vow, and it is probable that the vow of St. Paul mentioned in Acts 18:18, was of a similar nature, although the shaving of his head in Cenchræ, outside of Palestine, was not in conformity with the rules laid down in the sixth chapter of Numbers, nor with the interpretation of them by the Rabbinical schools of that period. (See Eaton in Hastings, Dict. of the Bible, s. v. Nazarites.) If we are to believe the legend of Hegesippus quoted by Eusebius ("Hist. Eccl.", II, xxiii), St. James the Less, Bishop of Jerusalem, was a Nazarite, and performed with rigorous exactness all the ascetic practices enjoined by that rule of life."<br /> 65. ^ McGarvey: "Yet we see him in the case before us, circumcising Timothy with his own hand, and this "on account of certain Jews who were in those quarters."<br /> 66. ^ James D. G. Dunn, Jesus, Paul and the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians, Westminster/John Knox Press, 1990, chapter 8: "Works of the Law and the Curse of the Law"<br /> 67. ^ [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch21.html Commentary on Acts of the Apostles |Christian Classics Ethereal Library<br /> 68. ^ [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/mcgarvey/acts.ch16.html Commentary on Acts of the Apostles |Christian Classics Ethereal Library<br /> 69. ^ "Judaizers", 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia<br /> 70. ^ Paul and Palestinian Judaism 1977 SCM Press ISBN 0–8006–1899–8<br /> 71. ^ J.D.G. Dunn's Manson Memorial Lecture (4.11.1982): 'The New Perspective on Paul' BJRL 65(1983), 95–122.<br /> 72. ^ New Perspectives on Paul<br /> 73. ^ Rowlands, Christopher Christian Origins (SPCK 1985) p.113<br /> 74. ^ Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Gospels. Vintage Publishers, 1989, p.62<br /> 75. ^ Cramer, Robert N. "Women's roles in early church — real history, revisionism, and making things right." Online: http://www.bibletexts.com/qa/qa078.htm#1 Accessed October 5, 2007<br /> 76. ^ New Jerome Biblical Commentary, edited by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J, and Roland E. Murphy, O.Carm., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990, pages 811-812)<br /> 77. ^ Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. HarperCollins, 1987. Ch. 1<br /> 78. ^ See Paul as Herodian, JHC 3/1 (Spring, 1996), 110-122. http://depts.drew.edu/jhc/eisenman.html<br /> 79. ^ Antiquities, Book XX, Chapter 9:4. http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-20.htm<br /> 80. ^ The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being his Autobiography, Correspondence, Reports, Messages, Addresses, and Other Writings, Official and Private. Published by the Order of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, from the Original Manuscripts, Deposited in the Department of State, With Explanatory Nites, Tables of Contents, and a Copious Index to Each Volume, as well as a General Index to the Whole, by the Editor H. A. Washington. Vol. VII. Published by Taylor Maury, Washington, D.C., 1854. <br /><br />[edit] References<br /><br /> * Aulén, Gustaf, Christus Victor (SPCK 1931)<br /> * Brown Raymond E. The Church the Apostles left behind(Chapman 1984)<br /> * Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0–385–24767–2.<br /> * Bruce, F.F., Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (ISBN 0–8028–4778–1)<br /> * Bruce, F.F. 'Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?' Bulletin John Rylands Library 58 (1976) 283–305<br /> * Conzelmann, Hans, the Acts of the Apostles — a Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Fortress 1987)<br /> * Davies, W. D. (1962), "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul", in Black, Matthew, Peake's Commentary on the Bible, London: T. Nelson, ISBN 0840750196 <br /> * Davies, W. D. (1970). Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology, third edition, S.P.C.K.. ISBN 0281024499. <br /> * Dunn, James D.G., 1990, Jesus, Paul and the Law Louisville,KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664250955<br /> * Hanson, Anthony Tyrrell (1974). Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 0802834523. <br /> * Irenaeus, Against Heresies, i.26.2<br /> * Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0–06–015582–5.<br /> * MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia: Westminster Press.<br /> * Ogg, George (1962), "Chronology of the New Testament", in Black, Matthew, Peake's Commentary on the Bible, London: T. Nelson, ISBN 0840750196 <br /> * Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0814658458<br /> * Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5<br /> * Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN 0814651739<br /> * Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919)<br /> * John Ruef, Paul's First letter to Corinth (Penguin 1971)<br /> * Sanders, E.P., Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977)<br /> * Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World (Harvard University Press 1986).<br /> * Segal, Alan F., Paul, the Convert, (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1.<br /><br />[edit] External links<br />Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:<br />Paul of Tarsus<br />Wikimedia Commons has media related to:<br />Paul of Tarsus<br />Wikisource<br />Wikisource has original works written by or about:<br />Paul of Tarsus<br /><br /> * Saint Paul of Tarsus: the true story<br /> * Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus<br /> * Encyclopædia Britannica: Paul<br /> * Paul's mission and letters From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians.<br /> * St Paul's tomb unearthed in Rome from BBC News (2006–12–08)<br /> * The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus Dr. Riemer Faber<br /> * The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28<br /> * Vatican reports discovery of St.Paul's tomb from WorldNetDaily.com (February 18, 2005). cf. Vatican Museum<br /> * Vatican Unearths Apparent Tomb of Paul of Tarsus<br /> * 2008 saint paul year<br /> * Documentary film on Apostle Paul<br /> * [1]<br /><br /> Saints portal<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />First Journey of Paul the Apostle<br />1. Antioch • 2. Seleucia • 3. Cyprus • 3a.Salamis • 3b. Paphos • 4. Perge • 5.Antioch in Pisidia •<br />6. Konya (Iconium) • 7. Derbe • 8. Lystra • 9. Antalya • 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey}<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Second Journey of Paul the Apostle<br />1. Cilicia • 2. Derbe • 3. Lystra • 4. Phrygia • 5.Galatia • 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) • 7. Samothrace • 8. Neapolis • 9. Philippi • 9. Amphipolis • 10. Apollonia • 11. Thessalonica • 12. Beroea • 13. Athens • 14. Corinth • 15. Cenchreae • 16. Ephesus • 17. Syria • 18. Caesarea • 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Third Journey of Paul the Apostle<br />1. Galatia • 2. Phrygia • 3. Ephesus • 4. Macedonia • 5.Corinth • 6. Cenchreae • 7. 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Paul, Saint; Saul<br />SHORT DESCRIPTION Apostle who spread Christianity<br />DATE OF BIRTH 10<br />PLACE OF BIRTH Tarsus, Turkey<br />DATE OF DEATH 67<br />PLACE OF DEATH Rome, Italy<br /><br />Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle"<br />Categories: 67 deaths | Christian martyrs of the Roman era | Christian religious leaders | Jewish Christians | Converts from Judaism to Christianity | Judeo-Christian topics | Letter writers | New Testament people | People executed by decapitation | Prophets in Christianity | Religious writers | Christian writers | Roman era Jews | Saints from the Holy Land | Theologians | Jews and Judaism-related controversies | Biblical apostles | Apostle Paul | 1st century Romans | 1st century writers<br /><br />Hebrew" redirects here. For other uses, see Hebrew (disambiguation).<br /><br />Hebrew (עִבְרִית, ‘Ivrit) is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family, and spoken by more than seven million people in Israel and used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world. In Israel, it is the de facto language of the state and the people, as well as being one of the two official languages (together with Arabic), and it is spoken by the majority of the population. Hebrew is also spoken as a mother tongue by the Samaritans, though today fewer than a thousand Samaritans remain. As a foreign language it is studied mostly by Jews and students of Judaism and Israel, archeologists and linguists specializing in the Middle East and its civilisations and by theologians.<br /><br />The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ibriy" which in turn is based upon the root "`abar" (עבּר) meaning "to cross over". The related name Eber, occurs in Genesis 10:21 and means "the one who traverses". In the Bible "Hebrew" is called יהודית because Judea was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation, late 8th century(Is 36, 2Kings 18).<br /><br />The core of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) is written in Classical Hebrew, and much of its present form is specifically the dialect of Biblical Hebrew that scholars believe flourished around the 6th century BC, around the time of the Babylonian exile. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Ha-Qodesh (לשון הקודש), "The Holy Language", since ancient times.<br />Contents<br />[hide]<br /><br /> * 1 History<br /> o 1.1 Origins<br /> o 1.2 Gezer calendar and other archaic inscriptions<br /> o 1.3 Classical Hebrew<br /> o 1.4 Mishnah and Talmud<br /> o 1.5 Medieval Hebrew<br /> o 1.6 Liturgical use<br /> * 2 Modern Hebrew<br /> o 2.1 Development<br /> o 2.2 Reactions<br /> o 2.3 Russia and the Soviet Union<br /> + 2.3.1 Birobidzhan<br /> o 2.4 Modern Israeli Hebrew<br /> + 2.4.1 Classification<br /> + 2.4.2 Regional dialects<br /> * 3 Aramaic<br /> o 3.1 Displacement<br /> o 3.2 Dialects<br /> * 4 Other coexisting languages<br /> * 5 Phonology<br /> o 5.1 Vowels<br /> + 5.1.1 Shva<br /> + 5.1.2 One-letter words<br /> o 5.2 Consonants<br /> + 5.2.1 Historical sound changes<br /> o 5.3 Stress<br /> * 6 Grammar<br /> * 7 Writing system<br /> o 7.1 Vowel signs<br /> o 7.2 Consonant letters<br /> o 7.3 Mater lectionis<br /> o 7.4 Indicating stress<br /> * 8 See also<br /> * 9 Notes<br /> * 10 References<br /> * 11 External links<br /> o 11.1 Hebrew Learning<br /> o 11.2 General<br /> o 11.3 Dictionaries<br /> o 11.4 History of the Hebrew language<br /> o 11.5 Complete texts in Hebrew<br /><br />[edit] History<br /><br />As a language, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. Hebrew (Israel) and Moabite (Jordan) are Southern Canaanite while Phoenician (Lebanon) is Northern Canaanite. Canaanite is closely related to Aramaic and to a lesser extent South-Central Arabic. Whereas other Canaanite languages and dialects have become extinct, Hebrew has survived. Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in Israel from the 10th century BC until the Babylonian exile. After that it was gradually replaced by Aramaic, the cosmopolitan language of the Jewish elite[1] (see below, Aramaic displacing Hebrew as a spoken language), though some scholars believe that there were still some native speakers of Hebrew until shortly before the Byzantine era. From the beginning of the 1st millennium Hebrew continued in use as a religious and literary language until the 19th century, when it was revived as a spoken language.[2]<br /><br />Most linguists agree that after the 6th century BC, when the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the ancient Kingdom of Judah, destroying Jerusalem and exiling its population to Babylon and after Cyrus The Great, the King of Kings or Great King of Persia, gave them permission to return, Biblical Hebrew came to be replaced in daily use by new dialects of Hebrew and a local version of Aramaic. After the 2nd century AD when the Roman Empire exiled most of the Jewish population of Jerusalem following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Hebrew gradually ceased to be a spoken language, but remained a major literary language. Letters, contracts, commerce, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry, and laws were written in Hebrew, which adapted by borrowing and inventing terms.<br /><br />Hebrew persevered along the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses (poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts, in addition to liturgy). This meant not only that well-educated Jews in all parts of the world could correspond in a mutually intelligible language, and that books and legal documents published or written in any part of the world could be read by Jews in all other parts, but that an educated Jew could travel and converse with Jews in distant places, just as priests and other educated Christians could once converse in Latin. It has been 'revived' several times as a literary language, and most significantly by the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th century. Near the end of that century the Jewish activist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, who was no scholar or linguist, owing to the ideology of the national revival (Hibbat Tziyon, later Zionism) began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of the Second Aliyah, it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time. Those languages were Jewish dialects such as Ladino (also called Judezmo), Yiddish and Judeo-Arabic, or local languages spoken in the Jewish diaspora such as Russian, Persian, and Arabic.<br /><br />The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as neologisms from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda) and Aramaic. Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French. Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of the newly declared State of Israel. English and Arabic still remain formal languages in Israel to this day.<br /><br />[edit] Origins<br /><br />Hebrew is a Semitic language, and as such a member of the larger Afro-Asiatic phylum.<br /><br />Within Semitic, the Northwest Semitic languages formed around the 3rd millennium BC, grouped with the Arabic languages as Central Semitic. The Canaanite languages are a group within Northwest Semitic, emerging in the 2nd millennium BC in the Levant, gradually separating from Aramaic and Ugaritic.<br /><br />Within the Canaanite group, Hebrew belongs to the sub-group also containing Edomite, Ammonite and Moabite. Another Canaanite sub-group contains Phoenician and its descendant Punic.<br /><br />[edit] Gezer calendar and other archaic inscriptions<br /><br />The first written evidence of distinctive Hebrew, the Gezer calendar, dates back to the 10th century BC at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, the traditional time of the reign of David and Solomon. Classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks and Etruscans later became the Roman script. The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it.<br />The Shebna lintel, from the tomb of a royal steward found in Siloam, dates to the 7th century BC.<br />The Shebna lintel, from the tomb of a royal steward found in Siloam, dates to the 7th century BC.<br /><br />Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example Protosinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam Inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraka found near Lachish which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian captivity of 586 BC.<br /><br />[edit] Classical Hebrew<br /><br />In its widest sense, Classical Hebrew means the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between the 10th century BC and the turn of the 4th century AD.[3] It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects. The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them.<br /><br /> * Archaic Biblical Hebrew from the 10th to the 6th century BC, corresponding to the Monarchic Period until the Babylonian Exile and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible (Tanach), notably the Song of Moses (Exodus 15) and the Song of Deborah (Judges 5). Also called Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew. It was written in a form of the Canaanite script. (A script descended from this is still used by the Samaritans, see Samaritan Hebrew language.)<br /> * Biblical Hebrew around the 6th century BC, corresponding to the Babylonian Exile and represented by the bulk of the Hebrew Bible that attains much of its present form around this time. Also called Classical Biblical Hebrew (or Classical Hebrew in the narrowest sense).<br /> * Late Biblical Hebrew, from the 6th to the 4th century BC, that corresponds to the Persian Period and is represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible, notably the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Basically similar to Classical Biblical Hebrew, apart from a few foreign words adopted for mainly governmental terms, and some syntactical innovations such as the use of the particle shel (of, belonging to). It adopted the Imperial Aramaic script.<br /> * Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD, corresponding to the Hellenistic and Roman Periods before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the Qumran Scrolls that form most (but not all) of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Commonly abbreviated as DSS Hebrew, also called Qumran Hebrew. The Imperial Aramaic script of the earlier scrolls in the 3rd century BC evolved into the Hebrew square script of the later scrolls in the 1st century AD, also known as ketav Ashuri (Assyrian script), still in use today.<br /> * Mishnaic Hebrew from the 1st to the 3rd or 4th century AD, corresponding to the Roman Period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the bulk of the Mishnah and Tosefta within the Talmud and by the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the Bar Kokhba Letters and the Copper Scroll. Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew.<br /><br />Sometimes the above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into "Biblical Hebrew" (including several dialects from the tenth century BC to 2nd century BC and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and "Mishnaic Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD and extant in certain other Dead Sea Scrolls).[4] However today, most Hebrew linguists classify Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew as a set of dialects evolving out of Late Biblical Hebrew and into Mishnaic Hebrew, thus including elements from both but remaining distinct from either.[5] By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century AD, Classical Hebrew ceases as a spoken language, roughly a century after the publication of the Mishnah, apparently declining since the aftermath of the catastrophic Bar Kokhba War around 135 AD.<br /><br />[edit] Mishnah and Talmud<br /><br /> Main article: Mishnaic Hebrew<br /><br />The term generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud תלמוד, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnaic Hebrew I), which was a spoken language, and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a literary language.<br /><br />The earlier section of the Talmud is the Mishnah משנה that was published around 200 CE and was written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect. The dialect is also found in certain Dead Sea Scrolls. Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of the dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel.<br /><br />A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the halachic Midrashim (Sifra, Sifre, Mechilta etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the Tosefta תוספתא. The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is Baraitot. The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew.<br /><br />About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language. The later section of the Talmud, the Gemara גמרא, generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amoraic Hebrew, which sometimes occurs in the text of the Gemara.<br /><br />[edit] Medieval Hebrew<br /><br /> Main article: Medieval Hebrew<br /><br />Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing (Joshua 1:1).<br />Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing (Joshua 1:1).<br /><br />After the Talmud, various regional literary dialects of Medieval Hebrew evolved. The most important is Tiberian Hebrew or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of Tiberias in Galilee that became the standard for vocalizing the Hebrew Bible and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew. This Tiberian Hebrew from the 7th to 10th century AD is sometimes called "Biblical Hebrew" because it is used to pronounce the Hebrew Bible; however properly it should be distinguished from the historical Biblical Hebrew of the 6th century BC, whose original pronunciation must be reconstructed.<br /><br />Tiberian Hebrew incorporates the remarkable scholarship of the Masoretes (from masoret meaning "tradition"), who added vowel points and grammar points to the Hebrew letters to preserve much earlier features of Hebrew, for use in chanting the Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes inherited a biblical text whose letters were considered too sacred to be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The Syriac script, precursor to the Arabic script, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The Aleppo Codex, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century likely in Tiberias and survives to this day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence.<br /><br />In the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic. Important Hebrew grammarians were Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah and later (in Provence) David Kimhi. A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as Dunash ben Labrat, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi and the two Ibn Ezras, in a "purified" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative metres. This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets.<br /><br />The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Classical Greek and Medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. This is used in the translations made by the Ibn Tibbon family. (Original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic.)<br /><br />Another important influence was Maimonides, who developed a simple style based on Mishnaic Hebrew for use in his law code, the Mishneh Torah. Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud.<br /><br />[edit] Liturgical use<br /><br />Hebrew has always been used as the language of prayer and study, and the following pronunciation systems are found.<br /><br />Ashkenazi Hebrew, originating in Central and Eastern Europe, is still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad, particularly in the Haredi and other Orthodox communities. It was influenced by the Yiddish language.<br /><br />Sephardi Hebrew is the traditional pronunciation of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews and Sephardi Jews in the countries of the former Ottoman Empire. This pronunciation, in the form used by the Jerusalem Sephardic community, is the basis of the Hebrew phonology of Israeli native speakers. It was influenced by the Ladino language.<br /><br />Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew is actually a collection of dialects spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the Arab and Islamic world. It was possibly influenced by the Aramaic and Arabic languages, and in some cases by Sephardi Hebrew, although some linguists maintain that it is the direct heir of Biblical Hebrew and thus represents the true dialect of Hebrew. The same claim is sometimes made for Yemenite Hebrew or Temanit, which differs from other Mizrahi dialects by having a radically different vowel system.<br /><br />These pronunciations are still used in synagogue ritual and religious study, in Israel and elsewhere, mostly by people who are not native speakers of Hebrew, though some traditionalist Israelis are bi-dialectal.<br /><br />Many synagogues in the diaspora, even though Ashkenazi by rite and by ethnic composition, have adopted the "Sephardic" pronunciation in deference to Israeli Hebrew. However, in many British and American schools and synagogues, this pronunciation retains several elements of its Ashkenazi substrate, especially the distinction between tsere and segol.<br /><br />[edit] Modern Hebrew<br /><br /> Main article: Revival of the Hebrew language<br /><br />[edit] Development<br /><br />In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition as pronounced in Jerusalem revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously Israeli Hebrew, Modern Israeli Hebrew, Modern Hebrew, New Hebrew, Israeli Standard Hebrew, Standard Hebrew, and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits many features of Sephardic Hebrew from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic.<br />Eliezer Ben-Yehuda<br />Eliezer Ben-Yehuda<br /><br />The literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, Hameassef (The Gatherer), was published by Maskilim litterati in Königsberg from 1783 onwards[6]. In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g. HaMagid, founded in Lyck, Prussia, in 1856) multiplied. Prominent poets were Chaim Nachman Bialik and Shaul Tchernichovsky; there were also novels written in the language.<br /><br />The revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue was initiated by the efforts of Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858-1922) (אליעזר בן–יהודה). He joined the Jewish national movement and in 1881 immigrated to Palestine, then a part of the Ottoman Empire. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora "shtetl" lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the literary and liturgical language into everyday spoken language.<br /><br />However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in Eastern Europe by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like Achad Ha-Am and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the vernacularization activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904-1914 "second aliyah" that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the British Mandate of Palestine recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. A constructed modern language with a truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in phonology, was to take its place among the current languages of the nations.<br /><br />[edit] Reactions<br /><br />While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous[7] (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss common everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the Palestine Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. It has been said that Hebrew unified the new immigrants coming to Mandate Palestine, creating a common language and culture.[citation needed] A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. Later it became the Academy of the Hebrew Language, an organization that exists today. The results of his and the Committee's work were published in a dictionary (The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew). Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine. At the time, members of the Old Yishuv and a very few Chasidic sects, most notably those under the auspices of Satmar, refused to speak Hebrew and only spoke Yiddish. However, while this ideological stance persists in certain quarters, almost all members of these groups have learned modern Hebrew in order to interact with outsiders.<br /><br />[edit] Russia and the Soviet Union<br /><br /> Main articles: History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union and Yevsektsiya<br /><br />Russian has separate terms for Ancient Hebrew (Древнееврейский язык, "ancient Jewish language") and Modern Hebrew (Иврит (Ivrit), directly borrowed from the Hebrew name).<br /><br />The Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew "reactionary" since it was associated with both Judaism and Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the Narkompros (Commissariat of Education) as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to secularize education (the language itself didn't cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes[8]). The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being the spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language.[9] Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests in the West,[10] teachers and students who attempted to study the Hebrew language were pilloried and sentenced for "counter revolutionary" and later for "anti-Soviet" activities.[citation needed] Later in the 1980s years in the USSR, Hebrew studies reappeared due to people struggling for permission to go to Israel (refuseniks). Several of the teachers were imprisoned, for example, Ephraim Kholmyansky,Yevgeny Korostyshevsky and others responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many cities of USSR.<br /><br />[edit] Birobidzhan<br /><br />Birobidzhan Jewish National University works in cooperation with the local Jewish community of Birobidzhan. The university is unique in the Russian Far East. The basis of the training course is study of the Hebrew language, history and classic Jewish texts.[11] In recent years, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast has grown interested in its Jewish roots. Students study Hebrew and Yiddish at a Jewish school and Birobidzhan Jewish National University. In 1989, the Jewish center founded its Sunday school, where children study Yiddish, learn folk Jewish dance, and learn about the history of Israel. The Israeli government helps fund the program.[12] Chief Rabbi Mordechai Scheiner has commented the progress at School No. 2, Birobidjan's Jewish public school with 670 students, 30 percent of whom are Jewish. Pupils learn about Jewish history, and the Hebrew and Yiddish languages.[13]<br /><br />[edit] Modern Israeli Hebrew<br /><br />Standard Hebrew, as developed by Eliezer Ben Yehuda, was based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation. However, the earliest speakers of Modern Hebrew had Yiddish as their native tongue and often brought into Hebrew idioms and literal translations from Yiddish. Similarly, the language as spoken in Israel has adapted to Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in the following respects:<br /><br /> * the elimination of pharyngeal articulation in the letters chet and ayin<br /> * the conversion of /r/ from an alveolar flap ([ɾ]) to a voiced uvular fricative ([ʁ]) or trill ([ʀ]) (see Guttural R)<br /> * the pronunciation (by many speakers) of tzere as [eɪ] in some contexts (sifrey and teysha instead of Sephardic sifré and tésha' )<br /> * the elimination of vocal schwa (zman instead of Sephardic zĕman)<br /> * some of the letter names (yud and kuf instead of Sephardic yod and qof)<br /> * in popular speech, penultimate stress in proper names (Dvóra instead of Dĕvorá; Yehúda instead of Yĕhudá)<br /> * similarly, penultimate stress in nouns or verbs with a second or third person plural suffix (katávtem "you wrote" instead of kĕtavtém; shalom aléykhem (greeting) instead of shalom alekhém).[14]<br /><br />[edit] Classification<br /><br />Although the majority of scholars see Modern Hebrew as a genuine continuation of Biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew, while conceding that it has acquired some European vocabulary and syntactical features, in much the same way as Modern Standard Arabic (or even more so, dialects such as Moroccan Arabic), two dissenting views are as follows:<br /><br /> * Paul Wexler[15] claims that modern Hebrew is not a Semitic language at all, but a dialect of "Judaeo-Sorbian". He argues that the underlying structure of the language is Slavic, but "re-lexified" to absorb much of the vocabulary and inflexional system of Hebrew in much the same way as a creole.<br /><br /> * Ghil'ad Zuckermann[16] [17] compromises between Wexler and the majority view: according to him, "Israeli" (his term for Israeli Hebrew) is a Semito-European hybrid language, which is the continuation not only of literary Hebrew but also of Yiddish, as well as Polish, Russian, German, English, Ladino, Arabic and other languages spoken by Hebrew revivalists.[18] Zuckermann's multi-parental hybridization model is based on two main principles: the Congruence Principle and the Founder Principle. According to the Congruence Principle, the more contributing languages a linguistic feature exists in, the more likely it is to persist in the target language.[19] Based on feature pool[20] statistics and recognizing simultaneous multiple sources, the Congruence Principle is in contrast to the family tree tool in historical linguistics. The Congruence Principle challenges Wexler's relexification model. The Founder Principle underlines the impact of the founder population on the emerging language. Thus, "Yiddish is a primary contributor to Israeli Hebrew because it was the mother tongue of the vast majority of revivalists and first pioneers in Eretz Yisrael at the crucial period of the beginning of Israeli Hebrew".[21] According to Zuckermann, although the revivalists wished to speak Hebrew, with Semitic grammar and pronunciation, they could not avoid the Ashkenazi mindset arising from their European background. He argues that their attempt to deny their European roots, negate diasporism and avoid hybridity (as reflected in Yiddish) failed. "Had the revivalists been Arabic-speaking Jews (e.g. from Morocco), Israeli Hebrew would have been a totally different language – both genetically and typologically, much more Semitic. The impact of the founder population on Israeli Hebrew is incomparable with that of later immigrants."[22] The Founder Principle challenges the traditional revival view, according to which Israeli Hebrew is Hebrew revived and thus Afro-Asiatic (Semitic).<br /><br />So far, neither view has gained significant acceptance among mainstream linguists. However, some linguists, for example American Yiddish scholar Dovid Katz, have employed Zuckermann's glottonym "Israeli" and accept his notion of hybridity. Few would dispute that Hebrew has acquired some European features as a result of having been learned by immigrants as a second language at a crucial formative stage. The identity of the European substrate/adstrate has varied: in the time of the Mandate and the early State, the principal contributor was Yiddish, during the large scale immigrations of Mizrahi Jews during the 1950-60s, Arabic, particularly the Yemenite and North African dialects, was a large contributor, while today it is largely Russian and American English.<br /><br />[edit] Regional dialects<br /><br />According to Ethnologue, the currently spoken dialects of Hebrew are "Standard Hebrew (General Israeli, Europeanized Hebrew)" and "Oriental Hebrew (Arabized Hebrew, Yemenite Hebrew)". These refer to two varieties used for actual communication by native speakers in Israel; they differ mainly in pronunciation, and hardly in any other way.<br /><br />Immigrants to Israel are encouraged to adopt "Standard Hebrew" as their daily language. Phonologically, this "dialect" may most accurately be described as an amalgam of pronunciations preserving Sephardic vowel sounds and some Ashkenazic consonant sounds with Yiddish-style influence, its recurring feature being simplification of differences among a wide array of pronunciations. This simplifying tendency also accounts for the collapse of the Ashkenazic [t] and [s] allophones of ת (/t/) into the single phone [t]. Most Sephardic and Mizrahi dialects share this feature, though some (such as those of Iraq and Yemen) differentiate between these two pronunciations as /t/ and /θ/. Within Israel, however, the pronunciation of Hebrew more often reflects the diasporic origin of the individual speaker, rather than the specific recommendations of the Academy. For this reason, over half the population pronounces ר as [ʀ] (a uvular trill, as in Yiddish and French) or as [ʁ] (a voiced uvular fricative, as in Standard German), rather than as [r], an alveolar trill, as in Spanish and Italian. The pronunciation of this phoneme is often used among Israelis as a shibboleth or determinant when ascertaining the national origin of perceived foreigners.<br /><br />There are mixed views on the status of the two dialects. On the one hand, prominent Israelis of Sephardic or Oriental origin are admired for the purity of their speech and Yemenite Jews are often employed as newsreaders. On the other hand, the speech of middle-class Ashkenazim is regarded as having a certain Central European sophistication, and many speakers of Mizrahi origin have moved nearer to this version of Standard Hebrew, in some cases even adopting the uvular resh.<br /><br />It was formerly the case that the inhabitants of the north of Israel pronounced beth rafe (בי"ת רפה, bet without dagesh, literally loose beth: ב) as /b/ instead of /v/, in accordance with the conservative Sephardic pronunciation[citation needed]. This was regarded as rustic and has since disappeared. It is said that one can tell an inhabitant of Jerusalem by the pronunciation of the word for two hundred as "ma'atayim" (מאתיים, as distinct from "matayim", as heard elsewhere in the country). Today, Israeli Hebrew is virtually uniform, the only noticeable variation being along ethnic lines. It is widely felt that these differences, too, have been disappearing among the younger generation.<br /><br />[edit] Aramaic<br /><br /> Main article: Judeo-Aramaic language<br /><br />Aramaic is a North-West Semitic language, like Canaanite. Its name derives either from "Aram Naharayim" in Upper Mesopotamia or from "Aram", an ancient name for Syria. Various dialects of Aramaic coevolved with Hebrew throughout much of its history. The words in Greek and Hebrew at the time corresponding to the word "Hebrew" (Εβραις, Εβραιστι, עברית יהודית) are distinguished from Aramaic συριστι συριακη.[23]<br /><br />One of the languages possibly used by Jesus and the Neo-Babylonian Empire was a dialect of Aramaic. The Persian Empire that captured Babylonia a few decades later adopted Imperial Aramaic as the official international language of the Persian Empire. The Israelite population, who had been exiled to Babylon from Jerusalem and its surrounding region of Judah, were allowed to return to Jerusalem to establish a Persian province, usually called Judea. Thus Aramaic became the administrative language for Judea when dealing with the rest of Persian Empire.<br /><br />The Aramaic script also evolved from the Paleo-Semitic script, but they diverged significantly. By the 1st century CE, the Aramaic script developed into the distinctive Hebrew square script (also known as Assyrian Script, Ktav Ashuri), extant in the Dead Sea Scrolls and similar to the script still in use today.<br /><br />[edit] Displacement<br /><br />By the early half of the 20th century, most scholars followed Geiger and Dalman in thinking that Aramaic became a spoken language in the land of Israel by the start of Israel's Hellenistic Period in the 4th century BCE, and that as a corollary Hebrew ceased to function as a spoken language around the same time. Segal, Klausner, and Ben Yehuda are notable exceptions to this view. During the latter half of the 20th century, accumulating archaeological evidence and especially linguistic analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls has qualified or challenged the previous consensus. Alongside Aramaic, Hebrew appears to have survived as a spoken language, since the Qumran evidence indicates that Hebrew texts were comprehensible to the rank-and-file. Some further evidence for this contention has been found in the Christian Bible story of Paul speaking to a crowd of Jews têi hebraïdi dialéktôi[24] lit.'in the Hebrew dialect'. A commonly proposed translation for this Greek passage is 'in the Aramaic vernacular of Palestine' [25]. Such a translation ignores, of course, the fact that Aramaic has a standard word in Greek συριστι/συριακη (cf. LXX Job 42:17ff, and Dan 2:4.), it is really only based on place names that are called Hebrew and that had an Aramaizing etymology. In a groundbreaking article Grintz suggested that Hebrew, rather than Aramaic, lay behind the composition of the Gospel of Matthew[26]. Grintz dates the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language to the end of the Roman Period. Hebrew nonetheless continued on as a literary language down through Byzantine Period from the 4th century CE.<br /><br /> Further information: Hebrew of Jesus<br /><br />The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew remain hotly debated. A trilingual scenario has been proposed for the land of Israel. Hebrew functioned as the local mother tongue, Aramaic functioned as the international language with the rest of the Mideast, and eventually Greek functioned as another international language with the eastern areas of the Roman Empire. Communities of Jews (and non-Jews) are known, who immigrated to Judea from these other lands and continued to speak Aramaic or Greek.<br /><br />Many Hebrew linguists postulate the survival of Hebrew as a spoken language until the Byzantine Period, but some historians do not accept this. The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls distinguishes the Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the various dialects of Biblical Hebrew out of which it evolved: "This book presents the specific features of DSS Hebrew, emphasizing deviations from classical BH."[27] The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church which once said, in 1958 in its first edition, that Hebrew "ceased to be a spoken language around the fourth century BC", now says, in its 1997 (third) edition, that Hebrew "continued to be used as a spoken and written language in the New Testament period".[28] An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew says, "It is generally believed that the Dead Sea Scrolls, specifically the Copper Scroll and also the Bar Kokhba letters, have furnished clear evidence of the popular character of MH [Mishnaic Hebrew]."[29] And so on.[3] It is widespread among Israeli scholars to treat Hebrew as a spoken language as a feature of Judea's Roman Period.<br /><br />[edit] Dialects<br /><br />The international language of Aramaic radiated into various regional dialects. In and around Judea, various dialects of Old Western Aramaic emerged, including the Jewish dialect of Old Judean Aramaic during the Roman Period. Josephus Flavius initially drafted his account of The Jewish War in Old Judean Aramaic but later recast it into Koine Greek to publish it for the Roman imperial court. Unfortunately Josephus's Aramaic version has not survived.<br /><br />Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE, the Jews gradually began to disperse from Jerusalem to foreign countries, especially after the Bar Kokhba War in 135 CE when the Romans turned Jerusalem into a pagan city named Aelia Capitolina. The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme. <br /><br /><br />After the Bar Kokhba War in the 2nd century CE, the Jewish Palestinian Aramaic dialect emerged from obscurity out of the vicinity of Galilee to form one of the main dialects in the Western branch of Middle Aramaic. The Jerusalem Talmud (by the 5th century) used this Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, as did the Midrash Rabba (6th to 12th century). This dialect probably influenced the pronunciation of the 8th-century Tiberian Hebrew that vocalizes the Hebrew Bible.<br /><br />Meanwhile over in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud (by the 7th century) used Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, a Jewish dialect in the Eastern branch of Middle Aramaic. For centuries Jewish Babylonian remained the spoken language of Mesopotamian Jews and the Lishana Deni. In the area of Kurdistan, there is a modern Aramaic dialect descending from it that is still spoken by a few thousand Jews (and non-Jews), though it has largely given way to Arabic.<br /><br />Hebrew continues to strongly influence all these various Jewish dialects of Aramaic.<br /><br />[edit] Other coexisting languages<br /><br /> Main article: Jewish languages<br /><br />Besides Jewish dialects of Aramaic, other languages are highly influenced by Hebrew, such as Yiddish, Ladino, Karaite and Judeo-Arabic. Although none is completely derived from Hebrew, they all make extensive use of Hebrew loanwords.<br /><br />The revival of Hebrew is often cited by proponents of international auxiliary languages as the best proof that languages long dead, with small communities, or modified or created artificially can become living languages used by a large number of people.<br /><br />[edit] Phonology<br /><br />Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See Help:IPA for a pronunciation key.<br /><br /> Main article: Hebrew phonology<br /><br />Hebrew has two kinds of stress: on the last syllable (milra‘) and on the penultimate syllable (the one preceding the last, mil‘el). The former is more frequent. Specific rules connect the location of the stress with the length of the vowels in the last syllable. However, due to the fact that Israeli Hebrew does not distinguish between long and short vowels, these rules are not evident in everyday speech. They usually cannot be inferred from written text either, since usually vowels are not marked. The rules that specify the vowel length are different for verbs and nouns, which influences the stress; thus the mil‘el-stressed ókhel (="food") and milra‘-stressed okhèl (="eats", masculine) differ only in the length of the vowels (and are written identically if vowels are not marked). Little ambiguity exists, however, due to nouns and verbs having incompatible roles in normal sentences. This is also true in English, for example, with the English word "conduct" in its nominal and verbal forms.<br /><br />[edit] Vowels<br /><br /> Main article: Niqqud<br /><br />The vowel phonemes of Modern Israeli Hebrew<br /><br />The Hebrew word for vowels is tnu'ot (תְּנוּעוֹת). The orthographic representations for these vowels are called Niqqud. Israeli Hebrew has 5 vowel phonemes, represented by the following Niqqud-signs:<br />phoneme pronunciation in<br />Modern Hebrew approximate pronunciation<br />in English othographic representation<br />"long" * "short" * "very short" / "interrupted" *<br />/a/ [a] (as in "spa") kamats ( ָ ) patach ( ַ ) chataf patach ( ֲ )<br />/e/ [ɛ̝] or [e̞] (as in "bet") tsere male ( ֵי ) or tsere chaser ( ֵ ) segol ( ֶ ) chataf segol ( ֱ ), sometimes shva ( ְ )<br />/i/ [i] (as in "ski") khirik male ( ִי ) khirik chaser ( ִ ) <br />/o/ [ɔ̝] or [o̞] (as in "gore") kholam male ( וֹ ) or kholam chaser ( ֹ ) kamatz katan ( ָ ) chataf kamatz ( ֳ )<br />/u/ [u] (as in "flu" but with no diphthongization) shuruk (וּ) kubuts ( ֻ ) <br />* The severalfold orthographic representation of each phoneme attests to the broader phonemic range of vowels in earlier forms of Hebrew. Some linguists still regard the Hebrew grammatical entity of Shva na—marked as Shva (ְ)—as representing a sixth phoneme, /ə/.<br /><br />In Biblical Hebrew, each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (khataf). However, there is no audible distinction between the three in modern Israeli Hebrew, except that tsere is often pronounced [eɪ] as in Ashkenazi Hebrew.<br /><br />[edit] Shva<br /><br />The Niqqud sign "Shva" represents four grammatical entities: resting (nakh / נָח), moving (na' / נָע), floating (merahef / מְרַחֵף) and "bleating" or "bellowing" ('ge'iya' / גְּעִיָּה). In earlier forms of Hebrew, these entities were phonologically and phonetically distinguishable. However, in Modern Hebrew these distinctions are not observed. For example, the (first) Shva Nach in the word קִמַּטְתְ (fem. you crumpled) is usually pronounced [ə] (or [ɛ]) ([ki'matɛt]) even though it should be mute, whereas the Shva Na in זְמַן (time), which theoretically should be pronounced, is usually mute ([zman]). Sometimes the shva is pronounced like a tsere when accented, as in the prefix "ve" meaning "and".<br /><br />[edit] One-letter words<br /><br />One-letter words are written attached to the following word. Such items include: the definite article ha (/ha/) (="the"); prepositions be (/bə/) (="in"), mi (/mi/) (="from"), le (/lə/) (="to"); conjunctions she (/ʃe/) (="that"), ke (/kə/) (="as", "like"), ve (/və/) (="and"). The vowel that follows the letter thus attached depends in general on the beginning of the next word and the presence of a definite article which may be swallowed by the one-letter word.<br /><br />The rules determining the vowels to follow these prepositions are complicated and vary with the formality of speech. In most cases they are followed by a moving schwa, and for that reason they are pronounced as be and le. In more formal speech, if a preposition is put before a word which begins with a moving shva, then the preposition takes the vowel /i/ (and the initial consonant is weakened), but in colloquial speech these changes often do not occur. For example, colloquial be-kfar (="in a village") corresponds to the more formal bi-khfar. If l or b are followed by the definite article ha, their vowel changes to /a/. Thus *be-ha-matos becomes ba-matos (="in the plane"). However it does not happen to mé (the form of "min" or "mi-" used before the letter "he"), therefore mé-ha-matos is a valid form, which means "from the airplane".<br /><br /> * indicates that the given example is grammatically non standard<br /><br />[edit] Consonants<br /><br />The Hebrew word for consonants is ‘itsurim (עיצורים). The following table lists the Hebrew consonants and their pronunciation in IPA transcription:<br /><br /> Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Post-<br /> alveolar[30] Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal<br /> Nasals m מ n נ <br /> Stops p פּ b בּ t ט,ת,תּ d ד,דּ k ק,כּ g ג,גּ ʔ א,ע<br /> Affricates ʦ צ <br /> Fricatives f פ v ב,ו s ס,שׂ z ז ʃ שׁ ʒ 'ז x ח,כ,ך ʁ ר h ה ɦ<br /> Trills ʀ ר <br /> Approximants j י <br /> Laterals l ל <br /><br />The pairs /b, v/, /k, x/ and /p, f/ have historically been allophonic. In Modern Hebrew, however, all six sounds are phonemic, due to mergers involving formerly distinct sounds (/v/ merging with /w/, /k/ merging with /q/, /x/ merging with /ħ/), loss of consonant gemination (which formerly distinguished the stop members of the pairs from the fricatives when intervocalic), and the introduction of syllable-initial /f/ through foreign borrowings.<br /><br />ע was once pronounced as a voiced pharyngeal fricative. Most modern Ashkenazi Jews do not differentiate between א and ע; however, Mizrahi Jews and Arabs pronounce these phonemes. Georgian Jews pronounce it as a glottalized q. Western European Sephardim and Dutch Ashkenazim traditionally pronounce it [ŋ] (like ng in sing) — a pronunciation which can also be found in the Italki tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany. (The remnants of this pronunciation are found throughout the Ashkenazi world, in the name "Yankl" and "Yanki", diminutive forms of Jacob, Heb. יעקב.)<br /><br />Hebrew also has dagesh, a strengthening. There are two kinds of strengthenings: light (kal, known also as dagesh lene) and heavy (khazak or dagesh forte). There are two sub-categories of the heavy dagesh: structural heavy (khazak tavniti) and complementing heavy (khazak mashlim). The light affects the phonemes /b/ /k/ /p/ (historically, also /g/, /d/ and /t/) in the beginning of a word, or after a resting schwa. Structural heavy emphases belong to certain vowel patterns (mishkalim and binyanim; see the section on grammar below), and correspond originally to doubled consonants. Complementing strengthening is added when vowel assimilation takes place. As mentioned before, the emphasis influences which of a pair of (former) allophones is pronounced. Historical evidence indicates that /g/, /d/ and /t/ also used to have allophones marked by the presence or absence of dagesh kal: these have disappeared from modern Hebrew pronunciation though the distinction in writing still appears in fully pointed texts. All consonants except gutturals and /r/ may receive the heavy emphasis (dagesh khazak).<br /><br />[edit] Historical sound changes<br /><br />Standard (non-Oriental) Israeli Hebrew (SIH) has undergone a number of splits and mergers in its development from Biblical Hebrew.[31]<br /><br /> * BH /b/ had two allophones, [b] and [v]; the [v] allophone has merged with /w/ into SIH /v/<br /> * BH /k/ had two allophones, [k] and [x]; the [k] allophone has merged with /q/ into SIH /k/, while the [x] allophone has merged with /ħ/ into SIH /x/<br /> * BH /t/ and /tˤ/ have merged into SIH /t/<br /> * BH /ʕ/ and /ʔ/ have usually merged into SIH /ʔ/, but this distinction may also be upheld in educated speech of many Sephardim and some Ashkenazim<br /> * BH /p/ had two allophones, [p] and [f]; the incorporation of loanwords into Modern Hebrew has probably resulted in a split, so that /p/ and /f/ are separate phonemes.<br /><br />[edit] Stress<br /><br />Terminal syllabic stress is by far the most common, penultimate stress being the only other grammatically acceptable option. The two options have names: Terminal stress is called milera (מלרע) and penultimate mil'eil (מלעיל). Spoken Hebrew admits of more stress variation than the official dialect. Stress has phonemic value, e.g. "ילד", when pronounced /'jeled/, means "boy", whereas when pronounced /je'led/ it means "will give birth to".<br /><br />[edit] Grammar<br /><br /> Main article: Hebrew grammar<br /><br />Hebrew grammar is partly analytic, expressing such forms as dative, ablative, and accusative using prepositional particles rather than grammatical cases. However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of the verbs and nouns. E.g. nouns have a construct state, called "smikhut", to denote the relationship of "belonging to": this is the converse of the genitive case of more inflected languages. Words in smikhut are often combined with hyphens. In modern speech, the use of the construct is sometimes interchangeable with the preposition "shel", meaning "of". There are many cases, however, where older declined forms are retained (especially in idiomatic expressions and the like), and "person"-enclitics are widely used to "decline" prepositions.<br /><br />[edit] Writing system<br /><br /> Main article: Hebrew alphabet<br /><br />Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet. Modern scripts are based on the "square" letter form (which was developed from the Aramaic script). A similar system is used in handwriting, but the letters tend to be more circular in their character, when written in cursive, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents.<br /><br />[edit] Vowel signs<br /><br />Original Biblical Hebrew text contained nothing but consonants and spaces and this is still the case with Torah scrolls that are used in synagogues. A system of writing vowels called niqqud (from the root word meaning "points" or "dots") developed around the 5th Century CE. It is used today in printed Bibles and some other religious books and also in poetry, children's literature, and texts for beginning students of Hebrew. Most modern Hebrew texts contain only consonant letters, spaces and western-style punctuation and to facilitate reading without vowels matres lectionis (see below) are often inserted into words which would be written without them in a text with full niqqud. The niqqud system is sometimes used when it is necessary to avoid certain ambiguities of meaning (such as when context is insufficient to distinguish between two identically spelled words) and in the transliteration of foreign names.<br /><br />[edit] Consonant letters<br /><br />All Hebrew consonant phonemes are represented by a single letter. Although a single letter might represent two phonemes — the letter "bet," for example, represents both /b/ and /v/ — the two sounds are always related "hard" (plosive) and "soft" (fricative) forms, their pronunciation being very often determined by context. In fully pointed texts, the hard form normally has a dot, known as a dagesh, in its center.<br /><br />There are twenty-seven symbols, representing twenty-two letters, in the Hebrew alphabet, which is called the "aleph bet" because of its first two letters. The letters are as follows: Aleph, Bet/Vet, Gimel, Dalet, He, Vav, Zayin, Chet, Tet, Yod (pronounced Yud by Israelis), Kaf/Chaf, Lamed, Mem, Nun, Samekh, Ayin, Pe/Fe, Tzadi, Qof (pronounced Koof by Israelis), Resh, Shin/Sin, Tav.<br /><br /> * The letters Bet, Kaf and Pe (historically, also the letters Gimel, Dalet and Tav) are softened to fricatives when following a vowel (except when doubled). In a fully pointed text, this distinction is indicated by the use of dagesh to denote the hard sound. (Occasionally, a horizontal line called rafe, written above the letter, is used to indicate the softened sound.) This has led to the misconception that there are separate letters "Vet", "Chaf" and "Fe".<br /> * The letter Shin/Sin is usually pronounced Sh, but occasionally S. In fully pointed texts, this distinction is indicated by a dot at the top left hand corner (for Sin) or the top right hand corner (for Shin). This may indicate that the pronunciation prevailing when the consonantal spelling of Hebrew was fixed was different from that prevailing when the system of pointing was devised, so that the Sin dot is a permanent reminder saying "this letter is spelled Shin but pronounced Samech". (In Samaritan Hebrew Shin is pronounced Sh wherever it occurs, and there is no "Sin".) Others regard Sin as a genuine phoneme separate from both Shin and Samech and believe that it must once have had a distinct pronunciation.<br /> * There are two written forms of the letters Kaf/Chaf, Mem, Nun, Pe and Tzadi. Each of these is written differently when appearing at the end of a word than when appearing at the beginning or in the middle of the word. The version used at the end of a word is referred to as Final Kaf, Final Mem, etc. Except in the case of Mem, the difference is that the final form has a tail pointing straight down, whereas in the normal form it bends to the left to point to the next letter.<br /><br />[edit] Mater lectionis<br /><br />The letters he, vav and yod can represent consonantal sounds (/h/, /v/ and /j/, respectively) or serve as a markers for vowels. In the latter case, these letters are called "emot q'ria" ("matres lectionis" in Latin, "mothers of reading" in English).<br /><br />The letter he at the end of a word usually indicates a final /a/, which usually indicates feminine gender, or /e/, which usually indicates masculine gender. In rare cases it may also indicate /o/, such as in שְׁלֹמֹה (Shlomo, Solomon). It may also indicate a possessive suffix for 3rd person feminine singular (סִפְרָהּ, her book), but in that case the he is not a mater lectionis but the consonant /h/, although in spoken Hebrew the distinction is rarely made. In texts with niqqud the he is written with a mappiq in the latter case. Correct pronunciation must be guessed according to context and niqqud may be used for disambiguation.<br /><br />Vav may represent /o/ or /u/, and yod may represent /i/ or /e/. Sometimes a double yud is used for /ej/ or /aj/ (this convention is derived from Yiddish). In some modern Israeli texts, the letter alef is used to indicate long /a/ sounds in foreign names, particularly those of Arabic origin.<br /><br />In some words there is a choice of whether to use a mater lectionis or not, and in modern printed texts matres lectionis are sometimes used even for short vowels, which is considered to be grammatically incorrect though instances are found as far back as Talmudic times. Spelling with matres lectionis is called male (full), while spelling without matres lectionis is called haser (defective). In Talmudic times texts from Palestine were noticeably more inclined to male spellings than texts from Babylonia: this may reflect the influence of Greek, which had full alphabetic spelling. Similarly in the Middle Ages Ashkenazim tended to use male spellings under the influence of European languages, while Sephardim tended to use haser spellings under the influence of Arabic.<br /><br />[edit] Indicating stress<br /><br />There is no one universally accepted sign for indicating stress in Hebrew texts. Usually stress is unmarked. In some vocalized texts, such as prayer books, when the stress is not on the last syllable it is marked with a small stroke placed underneath the first consonant of the stressed syllable to the left of the vowel mark (occasionally, as in Davidson's grammar, a different sign is used, to avoid confusion with meteg, see next paragraph). In vocalized Biblical texts stress is shown by the appropriate cantillation mark.<br /><br />A secondary stress in a word may be marked with a vertical stroke, called a meteg (מתג), placed to the left of the vowel: this symbol is available in Unicode. Meteg is most usually found two syllables before the main stress: thus, when the following consonant carries a shva, it follows that that shva is a sounded one. (For example, the word ochlah, her food, is written in the same way as āchěla, she ate, but meteg on the first syllable shows that āchěla is intended.)<br /><br />These signs are used, if at all, only in texts with niqqud.<br /><br />[edit] See also<br /><br /> * Cantillation<br /> * Hebrew alphabet<br /> * Hebrew literature<br /> * Niqqud (vowel pointing)<br /> * Study of the Hebrew language<br /> * Hebrew phonology<br /> * Romanization of Hebrew<br /> * Hebraization of English<br /> * International Phonetic Alphabet for Hebrew<br /> * Cursive Hebrew<br /><br />[edit] Notes<br /><br /> 1. ^ Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word:A Language History of the World, Harper Perennial, London, New York, Toronto, Sydney 2006 p80<br /> 2. ^ Languages of the World (Hebrew)<br /> 3. ^ a b William M. Schniedewind, "Prolegomena for the Sociolinguistics of Classical Hebrew", The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures vol. 5 article 6PDF (373 KiB)<br /> 4. ^ M. Segal, A Grammar of Mishnaic Hebrew (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927).<br /> 5. ^ Elisha Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harvard Semitic Studies 29 (Atlanta: Scholars Press 1986).<br /> 6. ^ Shalom Spiegel,Hebrew Reborn,(1930) Meridian Books reprint 1962, New York p.56<br /> 7. ^ Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Resurgence of the Hebrew Language by Libby Kantorwitz<br /> 8. ^ The Transformation of Jewish Culture in the USSR from 1930 to the Present (in Russian)<br /> 9. ^ Nosonovski, Michael (in Russian)<br /> 10. ^ Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931 signed by Albert Einstein, among others<br /> 11. ^ "Society / Religion" (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-31.<br /> 12. ^ "Jewish oblast retains identity despite emigration". Vladivostok News (2000). Retrieved on 2007-12-31.<br /> 13. ^ "Jewish life revived in Russia". Federation of Jewish Communities of the CIS (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-31.<br /> 14. ^ These pronunciations may have originated in learners' mistakes formed on the analogy of other suffixed forms (katávta, alénu), rather than being examples of residual Ashkenazi influence.<br /> 15. ^ Wexler, Paul, The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: A Slavic Language in Search of a Semitic Past: 1990.<br /> 16. ^ Zuckermann, Mosaic or mosaic? – The Genesis of the Israeli Language<br /> 17. ^ Zuckermann, Abba, Why Was Professor Higgins Trying to Teach Eliza to Speak Like Our Cleaning Lady?: Mizrahim, Ashkenazim, Prescriptivism and the Real Sounds of the Israeli Language<br /> 18. ^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "Complement Clause Types in Israeli", Complementation: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, edited by R. M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 72-92.<br /> 19. ^ See p. 62 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71.<br /> 20. ^ See Mufwene, Salikoko (2001), The Ecology of Language Evolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br /> 21. ^ See p. 63 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71.<br /> 22. ^ See p. 63 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71.<br /> 23. ^ A Pocket Lexicon to the Greek New Testament by Alexander Souter (1916), Wycliffe Bible Dictionary (1975), New Dictionary by Avraham Even-Shoshan (1988, in Hebrew). Notice that in the Gospel of John some place names are said to be "in Hebrew", when they are etymologically from Aramaic. John correctly calls the word rabbounei Hebrew.<br /> 24. ^ Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14<br /> 25. ^ Geoffrey W.Bromley (ed.)The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, W.B.Eeerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan 1979, 4 vols. vol.1 (sub.'Aramaic' p.233<br /> 26. ^ J.M.Griatz, ‘Hebrew in the Days of the Second Temple’ QBI, 79 (1960) pp.32-47<br /> 27. ^ Elisha Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1986), p. 15.<br /> 28. ^ "Hebrew" in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, edit. F.L. Cross, first edition (Oxford, 1958), 3rd edition (Oxford 1997).<br /> 29. ^ Miguel Perez Fernandez, An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew (Leiden, Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill 1997).<br /> 30. ^ Postalveolar sounds (with the exception of /ʃ/) are not native to Hebrew, and only found in borrowings.<br /> 31. ^ Robert Hetzron. (1987). Hebrew. In The World's Major Languages, ed. Bernard Comrie, 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520521-9.<br /><br />[edit] References<br /><br /> * Hoffman, Joel M, In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 0-8147-3654-8.<br /> * Izre'el, Shlomo, "The emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew", in: Benjamin Hary (ed.), The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew (CoSIH): Working Papers I (2001)<br /> * Kuzar, Ron, Hebrew and Zionism: A Discourse Analytic Cultural Study. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter 2001. ISBN 3-11-016993-2, ISBN 3-11-016992-4.<br /> * Sáenz-Badillos, Angel, A History of the Hebrew Language (trans. John Elwolde). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55634-1<br /> * Laufer, Asher. "Hebrew", in: Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press 1999. ISBN 0-521-65236-7, ISBN 0-521-63751-1.<br /><br />[edit] External links<br />Wikipedia<br />Hebrew language edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />Wiktionary<br />Hebrew language edition of Wiktionary, the free dictionary/thesaurus<br />Wikisource<br />Hebrew language edition of Wikisource, the free library<br />Wikibooks<br />Wikibooks has a book on the topic of<br />Hebrew<br /> This article or section may contain an excessive amount of external links.<br />Please improve this article by incorporating them into the appropriate end section, or by converting them to inline citations. (December 2007)<br /><br />[edit] Hebrew Learning<br /><br /> * Hebrew on the Web - largest online Hebrew learning site - 2,200 pages<br /><br />[edit] General<br /><br /> * Hebrew is Easy<br /> * Ancient Hebrew Research Center Research and Learning Hebrew Resources<br /><br />[edit] Dictionaries<br /><br /> * Root-based (Maskilon)<br /> * Word-search English-Hebrew and Hebrew-English (Morfix)<br /> * Hebrew-English (Maskilon)<br /> * Hebrew-English (DAVAR freeware, English)<br /> * Hebrew-English (Webster's Rosetta Edition)<br /> * English-Hebrew (Maskilon)<br /> * Collection of Hebrew bilingual dictionaries<br /><br />[edit] History of the Hebrew language<br /><br /> * History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language, David Steinberg<br /> * Short History of the Hebrew Language, Chaim Rabin<br /> * Israeli Hebrew, David Tene<br /> * Israel Language Policy and Linguistics, Haiim B. Rosén<br /> * Words and their History, E. Y. Kutscher<br /> * Hebrew Slang and Foreign Loan Words, Raphael Sappan<br /> * Language in Time of Revolution, Benjamin Harshav<br /> * Hebrew typography in German speaking regions<br /><br />[edit] Complete texts in Hebrew<br /><br /> * Mechon Mamre - The Bible, Mishnah, Talmud (Babylonian and Palestinian), Tosefta, and Mishneh Torah<br /> * Early Hebrew Newspapers Thousands of pages of mid- to late-19th-century and early 20th-century newspapers written in Hebrew and readable on line. Including contemporary accounts of the Battle of Gettysburg, the assassination of Czar Alexander II, the Dreyfus affair, etc.<br /><br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Modern Semitic languages<br /><br />Amharic • Arabic • Chaha • Harari • Hebrew • Inor • Maltese • Neo-Aramaic • Neo-Mandaic • Silt'e • Soddo • South Arabian • Syriac • Tigre • Tigrinya<br />[hide]<br />v • d • e<br />Hebrew • עִבְרִית<br />Hebrew <br />Language - Alphabet - History - Transliteration to English - Transliteration to Hebrew - Numerology<br /> <br />Alphabet <br />Numerals - Cantillation - Diacritics (Niqqud) - Dagesh - Mappiq - Sh'va - Rafe - Geresh - Gershayim<br />Letters <br />Alef - Bet - Gimel - Dalet - Hei - Vav - Zayin - Het - Tet - Yud - Kaf - Lamed - Mem - Nun - Samech - Ayin - Pei - Tsadi - Kuf - Reish - Shin - Tav<br />Eras <br />Biblical - Mishnaic - Medieval - Modern<br />Dialects <br />Ashkenazi - Sephardi - Mizrahi - Yemenite - Tiberian - Samaritan<br />Academic <br />Revival - Academy - Study - Ulpan - Keyboard - Literature (Hebrew/Israeli) - Names - Unicode and HTML<br />Scripts <br />Rashi - Braille - Ashuri - Cursive - Crowning - Ktav Ivri<br />Linguistics <br />Phonology - Verbal morphology - IPA - Grammar - Prefixes and suffixes - Punctuation - Spelling (Missing spelling - Spelling with Niqqud - Niqqud-less spelling) - Mater lectionis<br />Rome (pronounced /rəʊm/; Italian: Roma, pronounced /'roma/; Latin: Roma) is the capital city of Italy and Lazio,[2] and is Italy's largest and most populous city, with more than 2.7 million residents,[3] and a metropolitan area of almost 4 million inhabitants. It is located in the central-western portion of the Italian peninsula, on the Tiber river.<br /><br />Rome stands on top of more than two and a half thousand years of history, was once the largest city in the world and a major centre of Western civilisation. Rome is still the seat of the Roman Catholic Church which controls the Vatican City as its sovereign territory, an enclave of Rome.<br /><br />Today, Rome is a modern and cosmopolitan city and the third most-visited tourist destination in the European Union.[4] Rome's international airport, Fiumicino, is the largest in Italy and the city hosts the head offices of the vast majority of the major Italian companies, as well as the headquarters of three of the world's 100 largest companies: Enel, ENI, and Telecom Italia.[5]<br /><br />As one of the few major European cities that escaped World War II relatively unscathed, central Rome remains essentially Renaissance and Baroque in character. The historic centre of Rome is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[6]<br />Contents<br />[hide]<br /><br /> * 1 History<br /> o 1.1 From founding to Empire<br /> o 1.2 Fall of the Empire and Middle Ages<br /> o 1.3 Renaissance Rome<br /> o 1.4 Towards the reunification of Italy<br /> o 1.5 20th century<br /> * 2 Government<br /> o 2.1 Local<br /> o 2.2 National<br /> o 2.3 Administrative divisions<br /> * 3 Geography<br /> o 3.1 Location<br /> o 3.2 Topography<br /> o 3.3 Climate<br /> * 4 Demography<br /> o 4.1 Ethnic groups<br /> o 4.2 Religion<br /> * 5 Cityscape<br /> o 5.1 Architecture<br /> + 5.1.1 Ancient Rome<br /> + 5.1.2 Medieval<br /> + 5.1.3 Renaissance and Baroque<br /> + 5.1.4 Neoclassicism<br /> + 5.1.5 Fascist architecture<br /> o 5.2 Public parks and nature reserves<br /> o 5.3 Museums and galleries<br /> * 6 Economy<br /> * 7 Culture<br /> o 7.1 Language<br /> o 7.2 Education<br /> o 7.3 Music<br /> o 7.4 Cinema<br /> o 7.5 Media<br /> o 7.6 Sports<br /> * 8 Transportation<br /> o 8.1 Airports<br /> o 8.2 Road<br /> o 8.3 Rail<br /> o 8.4 Buses and trams<br /> o 8.5 Metro<br /> * 9 Sister and partner cities<br /> o 9.1 Sister city<br /> o 9.2 Partner cities<br /> * 10 International entities, organisations and involvement<br /> * 11 See also<br /> * 12 References<br /> * 13 Notes<br /> * 14 Documentaries<br /> * 15 External links<br /><br />History<br /><br /> Main article: History of Rome<br /><br />From founding to Empire<br />Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus<br />Capitoline Wolf suckles the infant twins Romulus and Remus<br /><br />According to a legend, Rome was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus on April 21, 753 BC.[7]. Archaeological evidence supports the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built in the area of the future Roman Forum. While some archaeologists argue that Rome was indeed founded in the middle of the 8th century BC, the date is subject to controversy.[8] The original settlement developed into the capital of the Roman Kingdom (ruled by a succession of seven kings, according to tradition), and then the Roman Republic (from 510 BC, governed by the Senate), and finally the Roman Empire (from 27 BC, ruled by an Emperor). This success depended on military conquest, commercial predominance, as well as selective assimilation of neighbouring civilizations, most notably the Etruscans and Greeks. From the its foundation, Rome was undefeated in war, although losing occasional battles, until 386 BC when Rome was occupied by the Celts (one of the three main Gallic tribes), and then recovered by Romans in the same year.[9] According to the history, the Gauls offered to deliver Rome back to its people for a thousand pounds of gold, but the Romans refused, preferring to take back their city by force of arms rather than ever admitting defeat.<br /><br />Roman dominance expanded over most of Europe and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, while its population surpassed one million inhabitants. For almost a thousand years, Rome was the most politically important, richest and largest city in the Western world, and remained so after the Empire started to decline and was split, even if it ultimately lost its capital status to Milan and then Ravenna, and was surpassed in prestige by the Eastern capital Constantinople.<br /><br />Fall of the Empire and Middle Ages<br />Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome of 410.<br />Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Sack of Rome of 410.<br /><br />With the reign of Constantine I, the Bishop of Rome gained political as well as religious importance, eventually becoming known as the Pope and establishing Rome as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the Sack of Rome in 410 AD by Alaric I and the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome alternated between Byzantine and plundering by Germanic barbarians. Its population declined to a mere 20,000 during the Early Middle Ages, reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. Rome remained nominally part of the Byzantine Empire rule until 751 AD when the Lombards finally abolished the Exarchate of Ravenna. In 756, Pepin the Short gave the pope temporal jurisdiction over Rome and surrounding areas, thus creating the Papal States.<br /><br />Rome remained the capital of the Papal States until its annexation into the Kingdom of Italy in 1870; the city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages and the focus of struggles between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire starting with Charlemagne, who was crowned its first emperor in Rome in 800 by Pope Leo III. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status of Papal capital and "holy city" for centuries, even when the Pope briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1337).<br /><br />Renaissance Rome<br /><br />The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The popes wanted to equal and surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities and to this end created ever more extravagant churches, bridges and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. The Popes were also patrians of the arts engaging such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli and Cosimo Rosselli.<br /><br />The period was also infamous for papal corruption with many popes fathering children, and engaging in nepotism and simony. The corruption of the Popes and the extravagance of their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-reformation.<br /><br />Towards the reunification of Italy<br />Garibaldi defends the Roman Republic in 1849.<br />Garibaldi defends the Roman Republic in 1849.<br /><br />Italy became caught up in the nationalistic turmoils of the 19th century and twice gained and lost a short-lived independence. Rome became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification when the rest of Italy was reunited under the Kingdom of Italy with a temporary capital at Florence. In 1861 Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the control of the Pope. During the 1860s the last vestiges of the Papal states were under French protection. And it was only when this was lifted in 1870, owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, that Italian troops were able to capture Rome.<br /><br />20th century<br /><br />After a victorious World War I, Rome witnessed the rise to power of Italian fascism guided by Benito Mussolini, who marched on the city in 1922, eventually declared a new Empire and allied Italy with Nazi Germany. This was a period of rapid growth in population, from the 212,000 people at the time of unification to more than 1,000,000, but this trend was halted by World War II, during which Rome was damaged by both Allied forces bombing and Nazi occupation; after the execution of Mussolini and the end of the war, a 1946 referendum abolished the monarchy in favour of the Italian Republic.<br /><br />Rome grew momentously after the war, as one of the driving forces behind the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation. It became a fashionable city in the 1950s and early 1960s, the years of la dolce vita ("the sweet life"), and a new rising trend in population continued till the mid-1980s, when the comune had more than 2,800,000 residents; after that, population started to slowly decline as more residents moved to nearby surburbs.<br /><br />Government<br />The Quirinal Palace, official residence of the President of the Italian Republic.<br />The Quirinal Palace, official residence of the President of the Italian Republic.<br /><br />Local<br /><br />Rome constitutes one of Italy's 8,101 comunes, albeit the largest both by extent and population. It is governed by a Mayor, currently Giovanni Alemanno, and a city council. The seat of the comune is in on the Capitoline Hill the historic seat of government in Rome. The local administration in Rome is commonly referred to as "Campidoglio", the name of the hill in Roman dialect.<br /><br />National<br /><br />Rome is the national capital of Italy and is the seat of the Italian Government. The official residences of the President of the Italian Republic and the Italian Prime Minister, the seats of both houses of the Italian Parliament and that of the Italian Constitutional Court are located in the historic centre. While the state ministries are spread out around the city. These include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs which is located in Palazzo della Farnesina near the Olympic stadium.<br /><br />Administrative divisions<br /><br /> See also: Administrative subdivision of Rome<br /><br />Rome is divided into 19 administrative areas, called municipi or municipalities. They were created administrative reasons and to increase decentralisation in the city. Each municipality is governed by a president and a council of four members who are elected by the denizens of the municipality every five years. The municipalities frequently divide the traditional, non-administrative divisions of the city.<br /><br />Rome is also divided into differing types of non-administrative divisions. The historic centre is divided into 22 rioni, all of which are located within the Aurelian walls except Prati and Borgo. After the designation of the newest and last rione, Prati, newer districts of the city were designated as quarters. There are 35 of these and they go all the way to the sea at Ostia, where they are called marine quarters. Rome also has six officially designated suburban zones and 52 agricultural zones. Many of the latter, however, have actuality been subject to considerable development.<br /><br />Geography<br /><br />Location<br /><br />Rome is in the Lazio region of central Italy on the Tiber river (Italian: Tevere). The original settlement developed on hills which faced onto a ford beside the Tiber island, the only natural ford on the river. The historic centre of Rome was build on seven hills: the Aventine Hill, the Caelian Hill, the Capitoline Hill, the Esquiline Hill, the Palatine Hill, the Quirinal Hill, and the Viminal Hill. The city is also traversed by another river the Aniene with joins the Tiber to the north of the historic centre.<br /><br />Although the city centre is about 24 kilometres (14.9 mi) inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea, the city territory extends to the very shore, where the south-western Ostia district is located. The altitude of the central part of Rome ranges from 13 m (43 ft) above sea level (at the base of the Pantheon) to 139 m (456 ft) above sea level (the peak of Monte Mario).[10] The comune of Rome covers an overall area of about 1,285 km2 (496 sq mi), including many green areas.<br /><br />Topography<br />Rome seen from satellite<br />Rome seen from satellite<br /><br />Historically the urban limits of Rome were considered to be the area within the city walls. Originally these were the Servian Wall which was built twelve years after Gauls' sack of the city in 390 BC. This contained most of the Esquiline and Caelian hills, as well as the whole of the other five. Rome grew out of the Servian Wall, but no more walls were constructed until almost 700 years later, when in 270 AD Emprior Aurelian began building the Aurelian Walls. These were almost 19 kilometres (12 mi) long, and were still the walls the troops of the Kingdom of Italy had to breach to enter the city in 1870. Modern Romans frequently consider the city's urban area to be delimited by its ring-road, the Grande Raccordo Anulare, which circles the city-centre at a distance of about 10km.<br /><br />The Comune of Rome, however, covers considerably more territory and extends to the sea at Ostia, the largest town in Italy not to be a comune in its own right. The comune covers an area roughly three time the total area within the Raccordo and is comparable in area to the entire provinces of Milan and Naples, and to an area six times the size of the territory of these cities. The comune also includes considerable areas of abandoned march land which is neither suitable for agriculture nor for urban development.<br /><br />Consequently the density of the comume is not that high, the communal territory being divided between strongly urbanised areas with areas designated as parks, nature reserves and agricultural use. The Province of Rome is the largest by area in Italy. At 5.352 km² its dimensions are comparable to the region of Liguria and more than three times the size of the greater metropolitan area of London.<br /><br />Climate<br /><br />Rome enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate which characterizes the Mediterranean coasts of Italy. It is at its most comfortable from April through June, and from mid-September to October; in particular, the Roman ottobrate (which can be roughly translated as the "beautiful October days") are famously known as sunny and warm days. By August, the temperature during the heat of the day often exceeds 32 °C (90 °F). Traditionally, many businesses closed during August, and Romans abandoned the city for holiday resorts. In more recent years, however, in response to growing tourism and changing work habits, the city is increasingly staying open for the whole summer. The average high temperature in December is about 13 °C (57 °F), but below zero lows are not uncommon.<br />[hide]Weather averages for Rome<br />Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec<br />Average high °C (°F) 12 (54) 13 (55) 16 (61) 19 (66) 23 (73) 27 (81) 31 (88) 31 (88) 27 (81) 22 (72) 17 (63) 13 (55)<br />Average low °C (°F) 2 (36) 3 (37) 4 (39) 7 (45) 11 (52) 14 (57) 17 (63) 17 (63) 14 (57) 10 (50) 6 (43) 3 (37)<br />Precipitation mm (inches) 83 (3.27) 76 (2.99) 68 (2.68) 68 (2.68) 48 (1.89) 40 (1.57) 22 (0.87) 35 (1.38) 76 (2.99) 106 (4.17) 119 (4.69) 91 (3.58)<br />Source: Weather.com[11] 2008<br /><br />Demography<br /><br />At the time of emperor Augustus, Rome was the largest city in the world, and probably the largest ever built until the nineteenth century. Estimates of its peak population range from 450,000 to over 3.5 million people with 1 to 2 million being most popular with historians. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the city's population fell dramatically to around less than 50,000 people, and continued to either stagnate or shrink until the Renaissance.<br /><br />When the Kingdom of Italy annexed Rome in 1870, it had a population of about 200,000, which rapidly increased to 600,000 at the eve of World War I. The fascist regime of Mussolini tried to block an excessive demographic rise of the city, but failed to prevent it from reaching one million people by 1931. After the second world war, growth continued, helped by a post-war economic boom. A construction boom also created a large number of suburbs during the 1950s and 1960s<br />Map depicting late ancient Rome<br />Map depicting late ancient Rome<br />Year Population<br />350 BC 30.000<br />250 BC 150.000<br />44 BC 1.000.000<br />120 1.650.000<br />330 600.000<br />410 200.000<br />530 50.000<br />650 20.000<br />1000 20.000<br />1400 20.000<br />1526 50.000-60.000<br />1528 20.000<br /> <br />Year Population<br />1600 100.000<br />1750 156.000<br />1800 163.000<br />1820 139.900<br />1850 175.000<br />1853 175.800<br />1858 182.600<br />1861 194.500<br />1871 212.432<br />1881 273.952<br />1901 422.411<br />1911 518.917<br /> <br />Year Population<br />1921 660.235<br />1931 930.926<br />1936 1.150.589<br />1951 1.651.754<br />1961 2.188.160<br />1971 2.781.993<br />1981 2.840.259<br />1991 2.775.250<br />2001 2.663.182<br />2007 2.718.768<br /><br />In 2007, there were 2,718,768 people residing in Rome (in which some 4 million live in the greater Rome area), located in the province of Rome, Lazio, of whom 47.2% were male and 52.8% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 17.00 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 20.76 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Rome resident is 43 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Rome grew by 6.54 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent.[12] The current birth rate of Rome is 9.10 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.<br /><br />Ethnic groups<br /><br />As of 2006, 92.63% of the population was Italian. The largest other ethnic groups came from other European countries (mostly from Romania and Poland): 3.14%, East Asia (mostly Filipino): 1.28%, and the Americas (mostly from Peru): 1.09%. It is also important to note that there are tens of thousands of illegal migrants living in Rome.<br /><br />Religion<br /><br />Rome is the centre of the Roman Catholic religion and much in common with the rest of Italy, the large majority of Romans are Roman Catholics. In recent years, the Islamic community in Rome has grown significantly, in great part due to immigration from North African and Middle Eastern countries into the city. As a consequence of this trend, the city promoted the building of the largest mosque in Europe, which was designed by architect Paolo Portoghesi and inaugurated on 21 June 1995.<br /><br />Cityscape<br />Panorama of Rome from the dome of St. Peter's Basilica.<br />Panorama of Rome from the dome of St. Peter's Basilica.<br /><br />Architecture<br /><br />Ancient Rome<br />The Pantheon.<br />The Pantheon.<br /><br /> Main article: Roman architecture<br /><br />One of the symbols of Rome is the Colosseum (70-80 AD), the largest amphitheatre ever built in the Roman Empire. Originally capable of seating 60,000 spectators, it was used for gladiatorial combat. The list of the very important monuments of ancient Rome includes the Roman Forum, the Domus Aurea, the Pantheon, Trajan's Column, Trajan's Market, the Catacombs, the Circus Maximus, the Baths of Caracalla, Castel Sant'Angelo, the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Ara Pacis, the Arch of Constantine, the Pyramid of Cestius, and the Bocca della Verità.<br /><br />Medieval<br /><br /> See also: Medieval architecture<br /><br />Often overlooked, Rome's medieval heritage is one of the largest in Italian cities. Basilicas dating from the Paleochristian age include Santa Maria Maggiore and San Paolo Fuori le Mura (the latter largely rebuilt in the 19th century), both housing precious 4th century AD mosaics. Later notable medieval mosaic and fresco art can be also found in the churches of Santa Maria in Trastevere, Santi Quattro Coronati and Santa Prassede. Lay buildings include a number of towers, the largest being the Torre delle Milizie and the Torre dei Conti, both next the Roman Forum, and the huge staircase leading to the basilica of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli.<br /><br />Renaissance and Baroque<br /><br /> See also: Renaissance architecture and Baroque architecture<br /><br />Saint Peter's Square.<br />Saint Peter's Square.<br /><br />Rome was a major world centre of the Renaissance, second only to Florence, and was profoundly affected by the movement. The most impressive masterpiece of Renaissance architecture in Rome is the Piazza del Campidoglio by Michelangelo, along with the Palazzo Senatorio, seat of the city government. During this period, the great aristocratic families of Rome used to build opulent dwellings as the Palazzo del Quirinale (now seat of the President of the Italian Republic), the Palazzo Venezia, the Palazzo Farnese, the Palazzo Barberini, the Palazzo Chigi (now seat of the Italian Prime Minister), the Palazzo Spada, the Palazzo della Cancelleria, and the Villa Farnesina.<br /><br />Rome is also famous for her huge and majestic squares (often adorned with obelisks), many of which were built in the 17th century. The principal squares are Piazza Navona, Piazza di Spagna, Campo de' Fiori, Piazza Venezia, Piazza Farnese and Piazza della Minerva. One of the most emblematic examples of the baroque art is the Fontana di Trevi by Nicola Salvi. Other notable baroque palaces of 17th century are the Palazzo Madama, now seat of the Italian Senate and the Palazzo Montecitorio, now seat of the Chamber of Deputies of Italy.<br /><br />Neoclassicism<br />The Vittorio Emanuele Monument.<br />The Vittorio Emanuele Monument.<br /><br /> See also: Neoclassical architecture<br /><br />In 1870, Rome became capital city of the new Kingdom of Italy. During this time, neoclassicism, a building style influenced by the architecture of antiquity, became a predominant influence in Roman architecture. In this period many great palaces in neoclassical styles were built to host ministries, embassies and other governing agencies. One of the best-known symbol of Roman neoclassicism is the Monument of Vittorio Emanuele II or "Altar of Fatherland", where the Grave of the Unknown Soldier, that represents the 650,000 Italians that fell in World War I, is located.<br /><br />Fascist architecture<br /><br /> See also: Fascist architecture<br /><br />The Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana.<br />The Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana.<br /><br />The Fascist regime that ruled in Italy between 1922 and 1943 developed an architectural style which was characterized by its links with ancient Roman architecture. The most important fascist site in Rome is the E.U.R. district, designed in 1938 by Marcello Piacentini. It was originally conceived for the 1942 world exhibition, and was called "E.42" ("Esposizione 42"). The world exhibition, however, never took place because Italy entered the Second World War in 1940. The most representative building of the Fascist style at E.U.R. is the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana (1938-1943), the iconic design of which has been labelled the cubic or Square Colosseum.<br /><br />After World War II, the Roman authorities found that they already had the seed of an off-centre business district that other capitals were still planning (London Docklands and La Defense in Paris). Also the Palazzo della Farnesina, the current seat of Italian Foreign Ministry, was designed in 1935 in fascist style.<br /><br />Public parks and nature reserves<br />Villa Borghese: the 19th century "Temple of Aesculapius" built purely as a landscape feature, influenced by the lake at Stourhead, Wiltshire, England.<br />Villa Borghese: the 19th century "Temple of Aesculapius" built purely as a landscape feature, influenced by the lake at Stourhead, Wiltshire, England.<br /><br />Public parks and nature reserves cover a large area in Rome, and the city has one of the largest areas of green space amongst European capitals.[13]. The most notable part of this green space is represented by the large number of villas and landscaped gardens created by the Italian aristocracy. While many villas were destroyed during the building boom of the late 19th century but a great many nonetheless remain. The most notable of these are Villa Borghese, Villa Ada and Villa Doria Pamphili.<br /><br />Of much more recent origin, Rome has a number of regional parks including the Pineto Regional Park and the Appian Way Regional Park. There are also nature reserves at Marcigliana, and at Tenuta di Castelporziano.<br /><br />Museums and galleries<br /><br />The most important museums and galleries of Rome include the National Museum of Rome, the Museum of Roman Civilization, the Villa Giulia National Etruscan Museum, the Capitoline Museums, the Borghese Gallery, the Museum of Castel Sant'Angelo, and the National Gallery of Modern Art.<br /><br />Economy<br />Eni's headquarters in EUR, Rome's business district<br />Eni's headquarters in EUR, Rome's business district<br /><br />Modern day Rome has a dynamic and diverse economy with thriving technologies, communications, and service sectors. It produces 6.7% of the national GDP (more than any other city in Italy). Rome grows +4,4% annually and continues to grow at a higher rate in comparison to any other city in the rest of the country. Following World War II Rome's economic growth began to overtake its rivals,[citation needed] Naples and Milan, although a traditional rivalry persists with Milan today. Tourism is inevitably one of Rome's chief industries, with numerous notable museums including the Vatican Museum, the Borghese Gallery, and the Musei Capitolini. Rome is also the hub of the Italian film industry, thanks to the Cinecittà studios. The city is also a centre for banking as well as electronics and aerospace industries. Numerous international headquarters, government ministries, conference centres, sports venues and museums are located in Rome's principal business districts: the Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR); the Torrino (further south from the EUR); the Magliana; the Parco de' Medici-Laurentina and the so-called Tiburtina-valley along the ancient Via Tiburtina.<br /><br />Culture<br /><br />Language<br /><br />The original language of Rome was Latin, which evolved during the Middle Ages into Italian. The latter emerged as the confluence of various regional dialects, among which the Tuscan dialect predominated, but the population of Rome also developed its own dialect, the Romanesco. The ancient romanesco, used during the Middle Ages, was a southern Italian dialect, very close to the Neapolitan. The influence of the Florentine culture during the renaissance, and, above all, the immigration to Rome of many Florentines who were among the two Medici Popes' (Leo X and Clement VII) suite, caused a strong change of the dialect, which resembled more the Tuscan varieties (the immigration of Florentines was mainly due to the Sack of Rome in 1527 and the subsequent demographic decrease). This remained largely confined to Rome until the 19th century, but then expanded to other zones of Lazio (Civitavecchia, Latina), from the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the rising population of Rome and to better transportation systems. As a consequence, Romanesco abandoned its traditional forms to mutate into the dialect spoken within the city, which is more similar to standard Italian, although remaining distinct from other Romanesco-influenced local dialects of Lazio. Dialectal literature in the traditional form Romanesco includes the works of such authors as Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli, Trilussa, and Cesare Pascarella. Contemporary Romanesco is mainly represented by popular actors such as Aldo Fabrizi, Alberto Sordi, Nino Manfredi, Anna Magnani, Gigi Proietti, Enrico Montesano, and Carlo Verdone.<br /><br />Education<br /><br />Rome is a nation-wide centre for higher education. Its first university, La Sapienza (founded in 1303), is the largest in Europe and the second largest in the world, with more than 150,000 students attending.[citation needed] Two new public universities were founded: Tor Vergata in 1982, and Roma Tre in 1992, although the latter has now become larger than the former. Rome also contains a large number of pontifical universities and institutes, including the Pontifical Gregorian University (The oldest Jesuit university in the world, founded in 1551), the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, and many others. The city also hosts various private universities, such as the LUMSA, the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Roman centre), the LUISS, Istituto Europeo di Design, the St. John's University, the John Cabot University, the IUSM, the American University of Rome, the Scuola Lorenzo de' Medici, the Link Campus of Malta, the S. Pio V University of Rome, and the Università Campus Bio-Medico. Rome is also the location of the John Felice Rome Centre, a campus of Loyola University Chicago.<br /><br />Music<br /><br />Rome is an important centre for music. It hosts the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia (founded in 1585), for which new concert halls have been built in the new Parco della Musica, one of the largest musical venues in the world. Rome also has an opera house, the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, as well as several minor musical institutions. The city also played host to the Eurovision Song Contest in 1991 and the MTV Europe Music Awards in 2004.<br /><br />Cinema<br />Set of Gangs of New York in Cinecittà studios, Rome.<br />Set of Gangs of New York in Cinecittà studios, Rome.<br /><br />Rome hosts the Cinecittà Studios, the largest film and television production facility in continental Europe and the centre of the Italian cinema, where a large number of today's biggest box office hits are filmed. The 99 acre (40 ha) studio complex is 5.6 miles (9 km) from the centre of Rome and is part of one of the biggest production communities in the world, second only to Hollywood, with well over 5,000 professionals - from period costume makers to visual effects specialists. More than 3,000 productions have been made on its lot, from recent features like The Passion of the Christ, Gangs of New York, HBO’s Rome, The Life Aquatic and Dino De Laurentiis’ Decameron, to such cinema classics as Ben Hur, Cleopatra and the films of Federico Fellini.<br /><br />Founded in 1937 by Benito Mussolini, the studios were bombed by the Western Allies during World War II. In the 1950s, Cinecittà was the filming location for several large American film productions, and subsequently became the studio most closely associated with Federico Fellini. Today Cinecittà is the only studio in the world with pre-production, production and full post-production facilities on one lot, allowing directors and producers to walk in with their script and "walk out" with a completed film.<br /><br />Media<br />Newspapers Magazines Television Radio<br /><br /> * City (Rome edition)<br /> * Corriere dello Sport<br /> * Leggo<br /> * Liberazione<br /> * Il Manifesto<br /> * Il Messaggero<br /> * Metro (Rome edition)<br /> * L'Osservatore Romano<br /> * QN<br /> * La Repubblica<br /> * Il Romanista<br /> * Il Tempo<br /> * L'Unità<br /><br /> <br /><br /> * Audio Review<br /> * L'Espresso<br /> * Frequency<br /> * XL Repubblica<br /> * Il Venerdì di Repubblica<br /><br /> <br /><br /> * RAI (national centre)<br /> * Sky Italia (national centre)<br /> * La7 (national centre)<br /> * Mediaset Centri di Produzione TV (Rome centre)<br /> * Mediaset centri produzione Fiction<br /> * Mediaset TG5 centro Palatino (Rome centre)<br /><br /> <br /><br /> * Radio Capital<br /> * Radio CNR<br /> * Radio Deejay (Rome centre)<br /> * Radio Dimensione Suono<br /> * Radio Dimensione Suono Roma<br /> * Radio Globo<br /> * Radio Italia<br /> * RadioRock<br /> * Radio Radicale<br /> * Radio Radio<br /> * Radio Vaticana<br /> * Radio 24 (Rome centre)<br /><br />Sports<br />Club Sport Founded League Venue Head Coach<br />A.S. Roma Football (soccer) 1927 Serie A Stadio Olimpico Luciano Spalletti<br />S.S. Lazio Football (soccer) 1900 Serie A Stadio Olimpico Delio Rossi<br />A.S. Cisco Roma Football (soccer) 1972 Serie C2 Stadio Flaminio Fabio Fratena<br />Pallacanestro Virtus Roma Basketball 1960 Serie A PalaLottomatica Jasmin Repeša<br />M. Roma Volley Volleyball 2006 A 1 Palazzetto dello Sport Roberto Serniotti<br />Unione Rugby Capitolina Rugby union 1996 Super 10 Stadio Flaminio Massimo Mascioletti<br /><br />Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is an official candidate to hosting the 2020 Summer Olympics.<br /><br />Football is the most popular sport in Rome, as in the rest of the country. The Olympic Stadium hosted the final game of the 1990 FIFA World Cup; it is also the home stadium for local Serie A clubs A.S. Roma and S.S. Lazio, whose rivalry has become a staple of Roman sports culture. Indeed, famous footballers who play for these teams and are also born in the city tend to become especially popular, as has been the case with players such as Francesco Totti and Daniele De Rossi (both for A.S. Roma).<br /><br />While far from being as popular as football, Rugby union is gaining wider acceptance. The Stadio Flaminio is the home stadium for the Italy national rugby union team, which has been playing in the Six Nations Championship since 2000, albeit with less than satisfactory performances, as they have never won the championship so far. Rome is home to local rugby teams, such as Unione Rugby Capitolina, Rugby Roma, and S.S. Lazio.<br /><br />Every May, Rome hosts the ATP Masters Series tennis tournament on the clay courts of the Foro Italico. Cycling was immensely popular in the post-WWII period, although its popularity has faded in the last decades; Rome has hosted the final portion of the Giro d'Italia twice, in 1989 and 2000. Rome is also home to many other sports teams, including basketball (Virtus Roma), volleyball (M. Roma Volley), handball or waterpolo.<br /><br />Transportation<br /><br />Airports<br /><br />Rome is served by three airports, of which the main two are owned by Aeroporti di Roma. The intercontinental Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport is Italy's chief airport and is more commonly known as "Fiumicino Airport", as it is located within the comune of Fiumicino, south-west of Rome. The older Rome Ciampino Airport is a joint civilian and military airport. It is more commonly referred to as "Ciampino Airport", as it is located beside Ciampino, south-east of Rome.<br /><br />A third airport, the Aeroporto dell'Urbe, is a small, low-traffic airport located about 6 km north of the city centre, which handles most helicopter and private flights. A fourth airport in the eastern part of the city, the Aeroporto di Centocelle (dedicated to Francesco Baracca), is no longer open to flights; it hosts the Comando di Squadra Aerea (which coordinates the activities of the Aeronautica Militare Italiana) and the Comando Operativo di Vertice Interforze[14] (which coordinates all Italian military activities), although large parts of the airport are being redeveloped as a public park.<br /><br />Road<br />The Appian Way, constructed in the 4th century BC<br />The Appian Way, constructed in the 4th century BC<br /><br />Rome is at the centre of the radial network of roads which roughly follow the lines of the ancient roman roads that began at the Capitoline Hill and connected Rome with its empire. Today Rome is circled, at a distance of about 10km, by the ring-road called the Grande Raccordo Anulare.<br /><br />Rome suffers from considerable traffic problems largely due to this largely radial street pattern which make it difficult for Romans to easily move from the vicinity of one the radial roads to another without going into the historic centre or using the ring-road. Problems which are not helped by limited size of Rome's metro system when compared to similarly sized cities. Chronic congestion caused by cars during the 1970s and 1980s led to restrictions being placed on vehicle access to the inner city centre during the daylight hours. Areas where these restriction apply are known as Limited Traffic Zones (Zona a Traffico Limitato (ZTL) in Italian). More recently, heavy night-time traffic in Trastevere and San Lorenzo has led to the creation of night-time ZTLs in those districts. And there are also plans to create another night-time ZTL in Testaccio.<br /><br />Rome has 21 taxis for every 10,000 inhabitants - far below other major European cities.[15]<br /><br />Rail<br />With its 29 platforms and over 150 million passengers each year, Roma Termini railway station is one of the largest train stations in Europe.<br />With its 29 platforms and over 150 million passengers each year, Roma Termini railway station is one of the largest train stations in Europe.<br /><br />Due to its location in the centre of the Italian peninsula, Rome is a principle railway node for central Italy. Rome main train station, Termini is one of the biggest train stations in Europe and the most trafficed in Italy with around 400 thousand daily travellers. The second largest station in the city, Roma Tiburtina, is currently being redeveloped as high-speed rail terminus.[16]. Other significant main line station are Roma Ostiense, Roma Trastevere and Roma Tuscolana.<br /><br />Buses and trams<br />Roman tram in Largo di Torre Argentina<br />Roman tram in Largo di Torre Argentina<br /><br />Above ground public transport in Rome is made up of a bus and tram network. This network is run by Trambus S.p.A. under the auspices of ATAC S.p.A. (which originally stood for the Bus and Tram Agency of the Comune, Azienda Tranvie ed Autobus del Comune in Italian). The bus network is currently made up of in excess of 350 bus lines and over 8 thousand bus stops. Whilst the limited tram system currently has 39 km of track and 192 stops.[17]<br /><br />Metro<br />Map of Roman Tram System<br />Map of Roman Tram System<br /><br /> Main article: Metropolitana di Roma<br /><br />A 2-line metro system operates in Rome. Called the Metropolitana. Construction on the first branch started in the 1930s. The line had been planned to quickly connect the main train station with the newly planned E42 area in the southern suburbs, where the 1942 World Fair was supposed to be held. The event never took place because of war. The area was later partly redesigned and renamed EUR (Esposizione Universale di Roma: Rome Universal Exhibition) in the 1950s to serve as a modern business district. The line was finally opened in 1955 and it is now part of the B Line. The A line opened in 1980 from Ottaviano to Anagnina stations, later extended in stages (1999 - 2000) to Battistini. In the 1990s, an extension of the B line was opened from Termini to Rebibbia. This underground network is generally reliable (although it may become very congested at peak times and during events, especially the A line) as it is relatively short. As of 2005, its total length is 38 km (24 mi). The two existing lines, A & B, intersect at Roma Termini station. A new branch of the B line (B1) is under construction with an estimated cost of 482,900,000 Euro. It is scheduled to open in 2010. B1 will connect to line B at Piazza Bologna and will have 4 stations over a distance of 3.9 km (2 mi).<br /><br />A third line, line C, is under construction with an estimated cost of 3,000,000,000 Euro and will have 30 stations over a distance of 25.5 km (16 mi). It will partly replace the existing Rail Road line, Termini-Pantano. It will feature full automated, driverless trains.[18] The first section is due to open in 2011 and the final sections in 2015, but archaeological findings often delay underground construction work. A fourth line, line D, is under development. It will have 22 stations over a distance of 20 km (12 mi). The first section is projected to open in 2015 and the final sections before 2035.<br /><br />Sister and partner cities<br />Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura*<br />UNESCO World Heritage Site<br />Type Cultural<br />Criteria i, ii, iii, iv, vi<br />Reference {{{ID}}}<br />Region Europe and North America<br />Inscription history<br />Inscription {{{Year}}} (Unknown Session)<br />Extensions 1990<br />* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.<br />Region as classified by UNESCO.<br /><br />Rome has one sister city, and a number of partner cities:<br /><br />Sister city<br /><br /> * Flag of France Paris, France (French: Seule Paris est digne de Rome; seule Rome est digne de Paris; Italian: Solo Parigi è degna di Roma; solo Roma è degna di Parigi; English: Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris).[19]<br /><br />Partner cities<br /><br /> * Flag of Bolivia Achacachi, Bolivia.<br /> * Flag of Spain Marbella, Spain.<br /> * Flag of Algeria Algiers, Algeria.<br /> * Flag of the People's Republic of China Beijing, China.<br /> * Flag of Serbia Belgrade, Serbia.<br /> * Flag of Brazil Brasília, Brazil.<br /> * Flag of Egypt Cairo, Egypt.<br /> * Flag of the United States Cincinnati, United States.<br /> * Flag of Ukraine Kiev, Ukraine.<br /> * Flag of the United Kingdom London, United Kingdom.<br /> * Flag of Canada Montreal, Canada.<br /> * Flag of the United States New York City, United States.<br /> * Flag of Bulgaria Plovdiv, Bulgaria.<br /> * Flag of South Korea Seoul, South Korea.<br /> * Flag of Australia Sydney, Australia.<br /> * Flag of Japan Tokyo, Japan.<br /> * Flag of Belgium Tongeren, Belgium.<br /><br />International entities, organisations and involvement<br /><br /> See also: Vatican City<br /><br />Rome is unique in having a sovereign state located entirely within its city limits, the Vatican City. The Vatican is a enclave of Rome and a sovereign possession of the Holy See the supreme government of the Roman Catholic Church. Rome hosts foreign embassies to both Italy and the Holy See, although frequently the same ambassador is accredited to both.<br /><br />Another body the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM) took refuge in Rome in 1834 after having lost Malta to Napoleon. It is sometimes classified as having sovereignty but does claim any territory in Rome or anywhere else, hence leading to dispute over its actual sovereign status.<br />FAO headquarters in Rome (former seat of the Department of Italian East Africa)<br />FAO headquarters in Rome (former seat of the Department of Italian East Africa)<br /><br />Rome is also the seat of significant international organisations of the United Nations, such as the World Food Program (WFP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).<br /><br />Rome has traditionally been heavily involved in the process of European political integration. In 1957, the city hosted the signing of the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (predecessor to the European Union), and also played host to the official signing of the proposed European constitution in July 2004.<br /><br />Rome was also where the Statute of the International Criminal Court was formulated.<br /><br />See also<br /><br /> * Churches of Rome<br /> * Glocal Forum, the International on-governmental organization with main office located in Rome<br /> * Large Cities Climate Leadership Group<br /> * List of ancient monuments in Rome<br /> * Popular Shopping Areas and Markets in Rome<br /><br />References<br /><br /> 1. ^ http://demo.istat.it/bilmens2006/index.html- ISTAT demographics<br /> 2. ^ "Rome (Italy)". Encarta. Retrieved on 2008-05-10.<br /> 3. ^ http://demo.istat.it December 2006<br /> 4. ^ Top 150 City Destinations London Leads the Way<br /> 5. ^ DeCarlo, Scott (2006-03-30). "The World's 2000 Largest Public Companies", Forbes. Retrieved on 2007-01-16. <br /> 6. ^ "Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura". UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved on 2008-06-08.<br /> 7. ^ "Rome: Pre-20th-Century History". Lonely Planet. Retrieved on 2008-07-04.<br /> 8. ^ Wilford, John Nobel (2007-06-12). "More Clues in the Legend (or Is It Fact?) of Romulus", New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-08-11. <br /> 9. ^ Livy, Book 5.<br /> 10. ^ Ravaglioli, Armando (1997). Roma anno 2750 ab Urbe condita. Rome: Tascabili Economici Newton. ISBN 888183670X. <br /> 11. ^ "Monthly Averages for Rome, Italy". The Weather Channel. Retrieved on 2008-06-01.<br /> 12. ^ http://demo.istat.it/bil2007/index.html<br /> 13. ^ www.romaperkyoto.org<br /> 14. ^ http://www.difesa.it/SMD/COI/La+sede.htm - Entry about the Centocelle Airport in the official website of the Italian Ministero della Difesa<br /> 15. ^ "Central Rome Streets Blocked by Taxi Drivers". The New York Times (2007-11-30). Retrieved on 2008-02-10.<br /> 16. ^ http://eurostar-av.trenitalia.com/it/progetto/stazioni_rinnovate/roma_tiburtina.html - Entry on Roma Tiburtina station on the official website of the Italian high-speed rail service (in Italian)<br /> 17. ^ The figures are from the ATAC website (in Italian).<br /> 18. ^ Kington, Tom (2007-05-14). "Roman remains threaten metro", Guardian Newspaper. Retrieved on 2008-08-10. <br /> 19. ^ "www.v1.paris.fr/EN/city_government/international/special_partners.asp".<br /><br />Notes<br /><br /> * Lucentini, Mario (2002). La Grande Guida di Roma (in Italian). Rome: Newton & Compton Editori. ISBN 88-8289-053-8. <br /> * Spoto, Salvatore (1999). Roma Esoterica (in Italian). Rome: Newton & Compton Editori. ISBN 88-8289-265-4. <br /> * Richard Brilliant (2006). Roman Art. An American's View. Rome: Di Renzo Editore. ISBN 88-8323-085-X. <br /><br />Documentaries<br /><br /> * The Holy Cities: Rome produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006.<br /><br />External links<br />Find more about Roma on Wikipedia's sister projects:<br /> Dictionary definitions<br /> Textbooks<br /> Quotations<br /> Source texts<br /> Images and media<br /> News stories<br /> Learning resources<br /><br />Official<br /><br /> * Official site of the City of Rome (Italian)<br /> * APT (official Tourist Office) of the City of Rome (English)<br /> * Rome Museums - Official site (Italian)<br /> * Vatican Museums (English)<br /> * Capitoline Museums (English)<br /><br />Other<br /><br /> * Rome travel guide from Wikitravel<br /> * Rome travel guides at the Open Directory Project<br /> * City models of Ancient Rome<br /><br />[hide]<br /> <br />Rome<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Capitals of European states and territories<br />Capitals of non-sovereign territories or constituent nations shown in bold italics<br />Central Southern Western Northern<br /><br />Berlin, Germany<br />Bratislava, Slovakia<br />Budapest, Hungary<br />Ljubljana, Slovenia<br />Prague, Czech Republic<br />Vienna, Austria<br />Warsaw, Poland<br />Eastern<br /><br />Astana, Kazakhstan 1<br />Baku, Azerbaijan 1<br />Bucharest, Romania<br />Chişinău, Moldova<br />Kiev, Ukraine<br />Minsk, Belarus<br />Moscow, Russia 1<br />Sofia, Bulgaria<br />Tbilisi, Georgia 1<br />Yerevan, Armenia 2<br /> <br /><br />Ankara, Turkey 1<br />Athens, Greece<br />Belgrade, Serbia<br />Gibraltar, Gibraltar<br />Nicosia, Cyprus 2<br />Podgorica, Montenegro<br />Rome, Italy<br />San Marino, San Marino<br />Pristina, Kosovo 3<br />Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />Skopje, Republic of Macedonia<br />Tirana, Albania<br />Valletta, Malta<br />Vatican City, Vatican City<br />Zagreb, Croatia<br /> <br /><br />Amsterdam, Netherlands<br />Andorra la Vella, Andorra<br />Barcelona, Catalonia 5<br />Belfast, Northern Ireland 4<br />Berne, Switzerland<br />Brussels, Belgium 6<br />Cardiff, Wales 4<br />Douglas, Isle of Man<br />Dublin, Ireland<br />Edinburgh, Scotland 4<br />Lisbon, Portugal<br />London, England 4 / UK<br />Luxembourg, Luxembourg<br />Madrid, Spain<br />Monaco, Monaco<br />Paris, France<br />St. Helier, Jersey<br />St. Peter Port, Guernsey<br />Vaduz, Liechtenstein<br /> <br /><br />Copenhagen, Denmark<br />Helsinki, Finland<br />Longyearbyen, Svalbard<br />Mariehamn, Åland Islands<br />Oslo, Norway<br />Reykjavík, Iceland<br />Riga, Latvia<br />Stockholm, Sweden<br />Tallinn, Estonia<br />Tórshavn, Faroe Islands<br />Vilnius, Lithuania<br />1 Transcontinental country. 2 Entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 3 Partially recognised or unrecognised country. 4 Constituent of the United Kingdom. 5 As part of Spain. 6 Also the seat of the European Union, see Location of European Union institutions and Brussels and the European Union.<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Flag of Europe Capital cities of the Member States of the European Union<br />Amsterdam • Athens • Berlin • Bratislava • Brussels • Bucharest • Budapest • Copenhagen • Dublin • Helsinki • Lisbon • Ljubljana • London • Luxembourg City • Madrid • Nicosia • Paris • Prague • Riga • Rome • Sofia • Stockholm • Tallinn • Valletta • Vienna • Vilnius • Warsaw<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Lazio • Comuni of the Province of Rome<br />Lazio <br />Affile • Agosta • Albano Laziale • Allumiere • Anguillara Sabazia • Anticoli Corrado • Anzio • Arcinazzo Romano • Ardea • Ariccia • Arsoli • Artena • Bellegra • Bracciano • Camerata Nuova • Campagnano di Roma • Canale Monterano • Canterano • Capena • Capranica Prenestina • Carpineto Romano • Casape • Castel Gandolfo • Castel Madama • Castel San Pietro Romano • Castelnuovo di Porto • Cave • Cerreto Laziale • Cervara di Roma • Cerveteri • Ciampino • Ciciliano • Cineto Romano • Civitavecchia • Civitella San Paolo • Colleferro • Colonna • Fiano Romano • Filacciano • Fiumicino • Fonte Nuova • Formello • Frascati • Gallicano nel Lazio • Gavignano • Genazzano • Genzano di Roma • Gerano • Gorga • Grottaferrata • Guidonia Montecelio • Jenne • Labico • Ladispoli • Lanuvio • Lariano • Licenza • Magliano Romano • Mandela • Manziana • Marano Equo • Marcellina • Marino • Mazzano Romano • Mentana • Monte Compatri • Monte Porzio Catone • Monteflavio • Montelanico • Montelibretti • Monterotondo • Montorio Romano • Moricone • Morlupo • Nazzano • Nemi • Nerola • Nettuno • Olevano Romano • Palestrina • Palombara Sabina • Percile • Pisoniano • Poli • Pomezia • Ponzano Romano • Riano • Rignano Flaminio • Riofreddo • Rocca Canterano • Rocca Priora • Rocca Santo Stefano • Rocca di Cave • Rocca di Papa • Roccagiovine • Roiate • Rome • Roviano • Sacrofano • Sambuci • San Cesareo • San Gregorio da Sassola • San Polo dei Cavalieri • San Vito Romano • Sant'Angelo Romano • Sant'Oreste • Santa Marinella • Saracinesco • Segni • Subiaco • Tivoli • Tolfa • Torrita Tiberina • Trevignano Romano • Vallepietra • Vallinfreda • Valmontone • Velletri • Vicovaro • Vivaro Romano • Zagarolo<br /> Province of Rome<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br /> Regional capitals of Italy<br /><br />L'Aquila (Abruzzo) • Aosta (Aosta Valley) • Bari (Apulia) • Potenza (Basilicata) • Catanzaro (Calabria) • Naples (Campania) • Bologna (Emilia-Romagna)<br />Trieste (Friuli-Venezia Giulia) • Rome (Lazio) • Genoa (Liguria) • Milan (Lombardy) • Ancona (Marche) • Campobasso (Molise) • Turin (Piedmont)<br />Cagliari (Sardinia) • Palermo (Sicily) • Trento (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol) • Florence (Tuscany) • Perugia (Umbria) • Venice (Veneto)<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Summer Olympic Games host cities<br /><br />1896: Athens • 1900: Paris • 1904: St. Louis • 1908: London • 1912: Stockholm • 1920: Antwerp • 1924: Paris • 1928: Amsterdam • 1932: Los Angeles • 1936: Berlin • 1948: London • 1952: Helsinki • 1956: Melbourne/Stockholm • 1960: Rome • 1964: Tokyo • 1968: Mexico City • 1972: Munich • 1976: Montreal • 1980: Moscow • 1984: Los Angeles • 1988: Seoul • 1992: Barcelona • 1996: Atlanta • 2000: Sydney • 2004: Athens • 2008: Beijing • 2012: London 2016: TBA 2020: TBA<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />World Heritage Sites in Italy<br />For official site names, see each article or the List of World Heritage Sites in Italy.<br /><br />Aeolian Islands • Aquileia • Agrigento • Pompeii, Herculaneum, Torre Annunziata • Botanical Garden, Padua • Caserta Palace, Aqueduct of Vanvitelli, San Leucio Complex • Castel del Monte • Cilento and Vallo di Diano, Paestum, Velia, Certosa di Padula • Amalfi Coast • Crespi d'Adda • Ravenna • Cerveteri, Tarquinia • Ferrara • Florence • Assisi • Matera • Cathedral, Torre Civica, Piazza Grande, Modena • Naples • Genoa • Mantua • Piazza del Duomo, Pisa • Pienza • Portovenere, Cinque Terre (Monterosso al Mare, Vernazza, Corniglia, Manarola, Riomaggiore), Palmaria, Tino, Tinetto • Residences of the Royal House of Savoy • Rock Drawings in Valcamonica • Rome1 • Sabbioneta • Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy • San Gimignano • Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan • Val di Noto (Caltagirone, Militello in Val di Catania, Catania, Modica, Noto, Palazzolo Acreide, Ragusa, Scicli) • Siena • Barumini nuraghes • Syracuse, Necropolis of Pantalica • Alberobello • Urbino • Val d'Orcia • Venice • Verona • Vicenza, Palladian Villas of the Veneto • Hadrian's Villa • Villa d'Este • Villa Romana del Casale<br /> <br />Flag of Italy<br />1 Shared with the Holy See.<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Landmarks of Rome<br />Basilicas and other religious sites <br />Catacombs of Rome • San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane • Basilica di San Clemente • Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore • Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls • Basilica of St. John Lateran • Chiesa del Gesù • Ghetto • Santa Croce in Gerusalemme • Santa Maria degli Angeli • Santa Maria in Aracoeli • Santa Maria in Cosmedin • Santa Maria in Trastevere • Santa Prassede • Santa Sabina • St. Peter's Basilica • Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza • Sistine Chapel<br />Gardens, parks and natural attractions <br />Tiber Island • Villa Ada • Villa Borghese • Villa Doria Pamphili • Villa Medici<br />Ancient temples, monuments and sporting venues <br />Ara Pacis • Castel Sant'Angelo • Circus Maximus • Colosseum • Column of Marcus Aurelius • Largo di Torre Argentina • Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II • Obelisks • Palazzo Barberini • Pantheon • Pyramid of Cestius • Roman Forum • Temple of Hercules Victor • Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill) • Theatre of Marcellus • Temple of Portunus • Trajan's Column • Trajan's Market • Stadio Olimpico • Mausoleum of Augustus<br />Aqueducts, squares, fountains, towers and walls <br />Trevi Fountain • Baths of Caracalla • Aurelian Walls • Servian Wall • Palazzo Farnese • Piazza Navona • Spanish Steps • Torre delle Milizie<br />Sculptures <br />Apollo Belvedere • Augustus of Prima Porta • La Bocca della Verità • Laocoön and his Sons<br />Seven Hills <br />Aventine Hill • Caelian Hill • Capitoline Hill • Esquiline Hill • Palatine Hill • Quirinal Hill • Viminal Hill<br /><br />Coordinates: [show location on an interactive map] 41°54′N, 12°30′E<br /><br />Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"<br />Categories: Cities and towns in the Lazio | Communes of the Province of Rome | Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games | World Heritage Sites in Italy | Rome | Capitals in Europe | Settlements established in the 8th century BC | Holy cities | Major Cities in Italy | River cities<br /><br />2:34 Also in thy x skirts is found the blood of the souls of the poor innocents: I have not found it by secret search, but upon all these.<br /><br /> (x) The prophets and the faithful are slain in every corner of your country.<br /><br />2:36 Why dost thou go about so much to change thy way? thou also shalt be ashamed of Egypt, y as thou wast ashamed of Assyria.<br /><br /> (y) For the Assyrians had taken away the ten tribes out of Israel and destroyed Judah even to Jerusalem: and the Egyptians slew Josiah, and vexed the Jews in various ways.<br /><br />2:37 Yea, thou shalt go forth from him, and thy hands upon z thy head: for the LORD hath rejected thy confidences, and thou shalt not prosper in them.<br /> "At that time the sign of the Son of Man will appear in the sky, and all the nations of the earth will mourn. They will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of the sky, with power and great glory. And he will send his angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of the heavens to the other. "Now learn this lesson from the fig tree: As soon as its twigs get tender and its leaves come out, you know that summer is near. Even so, when you see all these things, you know that it[d]is near, right at the door. I tell you the truth, this generation[e] will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened. Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away. The Day and Hour Unknown "No one knows about that day or hour, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son,[f] but only the Father. People that're lost mostly want to stay lost because so much of the devil is in them. My past neighbor in the condo absolutely, immediately had a no when I began inviting them to church. There's something about people like that. You'll see or hear their misery. You'll see the strait path is the happiest path. Have you ever noticed teleministers only use “God” not “Jesus.”? They do so not to offend people. As it was in the days of Noah, so it will be at the coming of the Son of Man. For in the days before the flood, people were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, up to the day Noah entered the ark; and they knew nothing about what would happen until the flood came and took them all away. That is how it will be at the coming of the Son of Man. Two men will be in the field; one will be taken and the other left. Two women will be grinding with a hand mill; one will be taken and the other left. "Therefore keep watch, because you do not know on what day your Lord will come. But understand this: If the owner of the house had known at what time of night the thief was coming, he would have kept watch and would not have let his house be broken into. So you also must be ready, because the Son of Man will come at an hour when you do not expect him. Proverbs 11:24; Proverbs 11:25; Proverbs 19:17 24There is that scattereth, and yet increaseth; and there is that withholdeth more than is meet, but it tendeth to poverty. Proverbs 11:25 25The liberal soul shall be made fat: and he that watereth shall be watered also himself. 17He that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the LORD; and that which he hath given will he pay him again. Myspace.com/michaeldeehouse "Who then is the faithful and wise servant, whom the master has put in charge of the servants in his household to give them their food at the proper time? It will be good for that servant whose master finds him doing so when he returns. I tell you the truth, he will put him in charge of all his possessions. But suppose that servant is wicked and says to himself, 'My master is staying away a long time,' and he then begins to beat his fellow servants and to eat and drink with drunkards. The master of that servant will come on a day when he does not expect him and at an hour he is not aware of. He will cut him to pieces and assign him a place with the hypocrites, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. Matthew 4:23 23And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing all manner of sickness and all manner of disease among the people.<br />People were scared of Jesus because what if he didn't like them? What if he got mad at Him? What if He decided to take over and make them slaves? the problem with Jesus’ ways is we put Him in our shoes. Jesus does not have human thinking. The world sees the happiness of the Christian, but they get mad because they cannot have that happiness with their lifestyle. Know that Jesus greatly. Heaven is full of love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. Nothing demands anything unfavorable is demanded of you! That ought to make you leap for joy. A couple years ago I invited a friend to church. They said the roof would fall in on them. Then thy became deathly sick. Please pray for them. They need a job, having lost their earlier one. Ask Jesus to come in your life. I have a friend that isn’t answering his phone. His best friend is mad at him about that. He has caller I'd. So I’m going to call his answering machine and read, Romans 10:9-10 9That if you confess with your mouth, "Jesus is Lord," and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. 10For it is with your heart that you believe and are justified, and it is with your mouth that you confess and are saved.<br />after I read that, I said love you. we used to stay in trouble in school! Throwing paper airplanes back and forth, skipping lunch, cutting up… you name it! We partied together. We, with friends, got evicted from a motel. As a matter of fact, Class of 93 Salutatorian and the Most Likely to Succeed were in that group. Most Likely to Succeed was in a movie with Michael J Fox, Poison Ivey. Nothing but heavenly ascension matters. The frthr you are from the living God, the more miserable you are. I didn't know a lot about my family. I’ve told it before, but it's still amazing. That’s my great uncle was Jerry Lee and Bill Anderson’s partner, and my step dad was TV show Sister Sue’s cameraman. I learned about my great uncle when I was 24, stepdad 29, oh yeah, Papa, Elvis Presley's club hopping buddy 29! It's amazing what I went so long not knowing. My brother’s friend, Tricia Yearwood’s nephew is another singer connection. Please pray for my ministry. I can only mail out to chunks of addresses. That takes 4e to get them all. Last count was 415 adresses with forty-seven of them groups. Think of the car dealers on TV. The best car, most excellent buy, top purchase, finest acquisition, greatest bargain! Everything you want! When I was about eight and Mom was ailing for a car, a commercial came on and he told how there's NOBODY on God’s green earth with cheaper prices. I told her to go there. Why not??? She said that was just talk. It amazed me you could legally lie to millions of people! The same thing happened with my step mom. She was a college student at the time, really into National Geographic. In it, they had Noah’s ark. She said it was politics. The devil is the same way. The devil tells you what superb greatness you'll get by betraying Jesus Christ. Isa 31:1-9. The Chief Strength of the Egyptian Armies Lay in Their Cavalry. Isaiah 31:1-9 (New International Version)<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Isaiah 31<br />Woe to Those Who Rely on Egypt<br /> 1 Woe to those who go down to Egypt for help,<br /> who rely on horses,<br /> who trust in the multitude of their chariots<br /> and in the great strength of their horsemen,<br /> but do not look to the Holy One of Israel,<br /> or seek help from the LORD.<br /><br /> 2 Yet he too is wise and can bring disaster;<br /> he does not take back his words.<br /> He will rise up against the house of the wicked,<br /> against those who help evildoers.<br /><br /> 3 But the Egyptians are men and not God;<br /> their horses are flesh and not spirit.<br /> When the LORD stretches out his hand,<br /> he who helps will stumble,<br /> he who is helped will fall;<br /> both will perish together.<br /><br /> 4 This is what the LORD says to me:<br /> "As a lion growls,<br /> a great lion over his prey—<br /> and though a whole band of shepherds<br /> is called together against him,<br /> he is not frightened by their shouts<br /> or disturbed by their clamor—<br /> so the LORD Almighty will come down<br /> to do battle on Mount Zion and on its heights.<br /><br /> 5 Like birds hovering overhead,<br /> the LORD Almighty will shield Jerusalem;<br /> he will shield it and deliver it,<br /> he will 'pass over' it and will rescue it."<br /><br /> 6 Return to him you have so greatly revolted against, O Israelites. 7 For in that day every one of you will reject the idols of silver and gold your sinful hands have made.<br /><br /> 8 "Assyria will fall by a sword that is not of man;<br /> a sword, not of mortals, will devour them.<br /> They will flee before the sword<br /> and their young men will be put to forced labor.<br /><br /> 9 Their stronghold will fall because of terror;<br /> at sight of the battle standard their commanders will panic,"<br /> declares the LORD,<br /> whose fire is in Zion,<br /> whose furnace is in Jerusalem.<br /><br />1. and stay on horses, and trust in chariots-In their level and fertile plains horses could easily be used and fed (Ex 14:9; 1Ki 10:28). In hilly Palestine horses were not so easily had or available. The Jews were therefore the more eager to get Egyptian chariots as allies against the Assyrian cavalry. In Assyrian sculptures chariots are represented drawn by three horses, and with three men in them (see Isa 36:9; Ps 20:7; Da 9:13).<br />2. `hIsaiah 20:5, Isaiah 20:5, 2 Kin 18:21; Is 30:3-5; 31:1; Ezek 29:6, 7, Isaiah 20:5, jer 9:23, 24; 17:5; 1 Cor 3:21, Isaiah 30:2-5, Isaiah 30:2, Is 31:1; Jer 43:7, Isaiah 30:2, Is 8:19, Isaiah 30:2, Is 36:9, Isaiah 30:3, Is 20:5, 6; 36:6; Jer 42:18, 22, Isaiah 30:4, Is 19:11, Isaiah 30:5, Jer 2:36, Isaiah 30:5, Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3, Isaiah 30:7, Is 30:5, Isaiah 30:7, Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9, Isaiah 31:3, Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4, Isaiah 31:3, Is 36:9, Isaiah 31:3, Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34, Isaiah 31:3, Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14, Psalm 33:17, Psalm 33:17, Ps 20:7; 147:10; Prov 21:31, <br />3. <br />4. Isaiah 20:5; 2 Kings 18:21; Isaiah 30:3-5; Isaiah 31:1; Ezekiel 29:6; Ezekiel 29:7; Jeremiah 9:23; Jeremiah 9:24; Jeremiah 17:5; 1 Corinthians 3:21; Isaiah 30:2-5; Isaiah 30:2; Jeremiah 43:7; Isaiah 8:19; Isaiah 36:9; Isaiah 30:3; Isaiah 20:6; Isaiah 36:6; Jeremiah 42:18 (New American Standard Bible)<br />5. <br />6. Isaiah 20:5<br />7. <br />8. <br />9. <br />10. 5"Then they will be (A)dismayed and ashamed because of Cush their hope and Egypt their (B)boast.<br />11. <br />12. <br />13. <br />14. 1. Isaiah 20:5 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 30:3-5; 31:1; Ezek 29:6, 7<br />15. 2. Isaiah 20:5 : Jer 9:23, 24; 17:5; 1 Cor 3:21<br />16. <br />17. <br />18. <br />19. <br />20. <br />21. <br />22. <br />23. 2 Kings 18:21<br />24. <br />25. <br />26. <br />27. <br />28. 21"Now behold, you (A)rely on the staff of this crushed reed, even on Egypt; on which if a man leans, it will go into his hand and pierce it. So is Pharaoh king of Egypt to all who rely on him.<br />29. <br />30. <br />31. <br />32. 1. 2 Kings 18:21 : Is 30:2, 3, 7; Ezek 29:6, 7<br />33. <br />34. <br />35. <br />36. <br />37. <br />38. <br />39. <br />40. Isaiah 30:3-5<br />41. <br />42. <br />43. <br />44. <br />45. 3"Therefore the safety of Pharaoh will be (A)your shame<br />46. And the shelter in the shadow of Egypt, your humiliation.<br />47. 4"For (B)their princes are at Zoan<br />48. And their ambassadors arrive at Hanes.<br />49. 5"Everyone will be ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,<br />50. Who are not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."<br />51. <br />52. <br />53. <br />54. 1. Isaiah 30:3 : Is 20:5, 6; 36:6; Jer 42:18, 22<br />55. 2. Isaiah 30:4 : Is 19:11<br />56. 3. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36<br />57. 4. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3<br />58. <br />59. <br />60. <br />61. <br />62. <br />63. <br />64. <br />65. Isaiah 31:1<br />66. <br />67. <br />68. <br />69. Isaiah 31<br />70. Help Not in Egypt but in God<br />71. 1Woe to those who go down to (A)Egypt for help<br />72. And (B)rely on horses,<br />73. And trust in chariots because they are many<br />74. And in horsemen because they are very strong,<br />75. But they do not look to the Holy One of Israel, nor seek the LORD!<br />76. <br />77. <br />78. <br />79. 1. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 30:2, 7; 36:6<br />80. 2. Isaiah 31:1 : Deut 17:16; Ps 20:7; 33:17; Is 2:7; 30:16<br />81. 3. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 9:13; Dan 9:13; Amos 5:4-8<br />82. 4. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 10:17; 43:15; Hos 11:9; Hab 1:12; 3:3<br />83. <br />84. <br />85. <br />86. <br />87. <br />88. <br />89. <br />90. Ezekiel 29:6<br />91. <br />92. <br />93. <br />94. <br />95. 6"Then all the inhabitants of Egypt will know that I am the LORD,<br />96. Because they have been only a (A)staff made of reed to the house of Israel.<br />97. <br />98. <br />99. <br />100. 1. Ezekiel 29:6 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 36:6<br />101. <br />102. <br />103. <br />104. <br />105. <br />106. <br />107. <br />108. Ezekiel 29:7<br />109. <br />110. <br />111. <br />112. <br />113. 7"When they took hold of you with the hand,<br />114. You (A)broke and tore all their hands;<br />115. And when they leaned on you,<br />116. You broke and made all their loins quake."<br />117. <br />118. <br />119. <br />120. 1. Ezekiel 29:7 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 36:6; Ezek 17:15-17<br />121. <br />122. <br />123. <br />124. <br />125. <br />126. <br />127. <br />128. Isaiah 20:5<br />129. <br />130. <br />131. <br />132. 5"Then they will be (A)dismayed and ashamed because of Cush their hope and Egypt their (B)boast.<br />133. <br />134. <br />135. <br />136. 1. Isaiah 20:5 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 30:3-5; 31:1; Ezek 29:6, 7<br />137. 2. Isaiah 20:5 : Jer 9:23, 24; 17:5; 1 Cor 3:21<br />138. <br />139. <br />140. <br />141. <br />142. <br />143. <br />144. <br />145. Jeremiah 9:23<br />146. <br />147. <br />148. <br />149. 23Thus says the LORD, "(A)Let not a wise man boast of his wisdom, and let not the (B)mighty man boast of his might, let not a rich man boast of his riches;<br />150. <br />151. <br />152. <br />153. 1. Jeremiah 9:23 : Eccl 9:11; Is 47:10; Ezek 28:3-7<br />154. 2. Jeremiah 9:23 : 1 Kin 20:10, 11; Is 10:8-12<br />155. 3. Jeremiah 9:23 : Job 31:24, 25; Ps 49:6-9<br />156. <br />157. <br />158. <br />159. <br />160. <br />161. <br />162. <br />163. Jeremiah 9:24<br />164. <br />165. <br />166. <br />167. 24but let him who boasts (A)boast of this, that he understands and knows Me, that I am the LORD who (B)exercises lovingkindness, justice and righteousness on earth; for I delight in these things," declares the LORD.<br />168. <br />169. <br />170. <br />171. 1. Jeremiah 9:24 : Ps 20:7; 44:8; Is 41:16; Jer 4:2; 1 Cor 1:31; 2 Cor 10:17; Gal 6:14<br />172. 2. Jeremiah 9:24 : Ex 34:6, 7; Ps 36:5, 7; 51:1<br />173. 3. Jeremiah 9:24 : Is 61:8; Mic 7:18<br />174. <br />175. <br />176. <br />177. <br />178. <br />179. <br />180. <br />181. Jeremiah 17:5<br />182. <br />183. <br />184. <br />185. <br />186. 5Thus says the LORD,<br />187. "(A)Cursed is the man who trusts in mankind<br />188. And makes (B)flesh his strength,<br />189. And whose heart turns away from the LORD.<br />190. <br />191. <br />192. <br />193. 1. Jeremiah 17:5 : Ps 146:3; Is 2:22; 30:1; Ezek 29:7<br />194. 2. Jeremiah 17:5 : 2 Chr 32:8; Is 31:3<br />195. <br />196. <br />197. <br />198. <br />199. <br />200. <br />201. <br />202. 1 Corinthians 3:21<br />203. <br />204. <br />205. <br />206. <br />207. 21So then (A)let no one boast in men For (B)all things belong to you,<br />208. <br />209. <br />210. <br />211. 1. 1 Corinthians 3:21 : 1 Cor 4:6<br />212. 2. 1 Corinthians 3:21 : Rom 8:32<br />213. <br />214. <br />215. <br />216. <br />217. <br />218. <br />219. <br />220. Isaiah 30:2-5<br />221. <br />222. <br />223. <br />224. <br />225. 2Who (A)proceed down to Egypt<br />226. Without (B)consulting Me,<br />227. To take refuge in the safety of Pharaoh<br />228. And to seek shelter in the shadow of Egypt!<br />229. 3"Therefore the safety of Pharaoh will be your shame<br />230. And the shelter in the shadow of Egypt, your humiliation.<br />231. 4"For their princes are at Zoan<br />232. And their ambassadors arrive at Hanes.<br />233. 5"Everyone will be ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,<br />234. Who are not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."<br />235. <br />236. <br />237. <br />238. 1. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 31:1; Jer 43:7<br />239. 2. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 8:19<br />240. 3. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 36:9<br />241. 4. Isaiah 30:3 : Is 20:5, 6; 36:6; Jer 42:18, 22<br />242. 5. Isaiah 30:4 : Is 19:11<br />243. 6. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36<br />244. 7. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3<br />245. <br />246. <br />247. <br />248. <br />249. <br />250. <br />251. <br />252. Isaiah 30:2<br />253. <br />254. <br />255. <br />256. <br />257. 2Who (A)proceed down to Egypt<br />258. Without (B)consulting Me,<br />259. To take refuge in the safety of Pharaoh<br />260. And to seek shelter in the shadow of Egypt!<br />261. <br />262. <br />263. <br />264. 1. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 31:1; Jer 43:7<br />265. 2. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 8:19<br />266. 3. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 36:9<br />267. <br />268. <br />269. <br />270. <br />271. <br />272. <br />273. <br />274. Isaiah 31:1<br />275. <br />276. <br />277. <br />278. Isaiah 31<br />279. Help Not in Egypt but in God<br />280. 1Woe to those who go down to (A)Egypt for help<br />281. And (B)rely on horses,<br />282. And trust in chariots because they are many<br />283. And in horsemen because they are very strong,<br />284. But they do not look to the Holy One of Israel, nor seek the LORD!<br />285. <br />286. <br />287. <br />288. 1. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 30:2, 7; 36:6<br />289. 2. Isaiah 31:1 : Deut 17:16; Ps 20:7; 33:17; Is 2:7; 30:16<br />290. 3. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 9:13; Dan 9:13; Amos 5:4-8<br />291. 4. Isaiah 31:1 : Is 10:17; 43:15; Hos 11:9; Hab 1:12; 3:3<br />292. <br />293. <br />294. <br />295. <br />296. <br />297. <br />298. <br />299. Jeremiah 43:7<br />300. <br />301. <br />302. <br />303. 7and they entered the land of Egypt (for they did not obey the voice of the LORD) and went in as far as (A)Tahpanhes.<br />304. <br />305. <br />306. <br />307. 1. Jeremiah 43:7 : Jer 2:16; 44:1<br />308. <br />309. <br />310. <br />311. <br />312. <br />313. <br />314. <br />315. Isaiah 30:2<br />316. <br />317. <br />318. <br />319. <br />320. 2Who (A)proceed down to Egypt<br />321. Without (B)consulting Me,<br />322. To take refuge in the safety of Pharaoh<br />323. And to seek shelter in the shadow of Egypt!<br />324. <br />325. <br />326. <br />327. 1. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 31:1; Jer 43:7<br />328. 2. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 8:19<br />329. 3. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 36:9<br />330. <br />331. <br />332. <br />333. <br />334. <br />335. <br />336. <br />337. Isaiah 8:19<br />338. <br />339. <br />340. <br />341. 19When they say to you, "(A)Consult the mediums and the spiritists who whisper and mutter," should not a people (B)consult their God? Should they consult the dead on behalf of the living?<br />342. <br />343. <br />344. <br />345. 1. Isaiah 8:19 : Lev 20:6; 2 Kin 21:6; 23:24; Is 19:3; 29:4; 47:12, 13<br />346. 2. Isaiah 8:19 : Is 30:2; 45:11<br />347. 3. Isaiah 8:19 : 1 Sam 28:8-11<br />348. <br />349. <br />350. <br />351. <br />352. <br />353. <br />354. <br />355. Isaiah 30:2<br />356. <br />357. <br />358. <br />359. <br />360. 2Who (A)proceed down to Egypt<br />361. Without (B)consulting Me,<br />362. To take refuge in the safety of Pharaoh<br />363. And to seek shelter in the shadow of Egypt!<br />364. <br />365. <br />366. <br />367. 1. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 31:1; Jer 43:7<br />368. 2. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 8:19<br />369. 3. Isaiah 30:2 : Is 36:9<br />370. <br />371. <br />372. <br />373. <br />374. <br />375. <br />376. <br />377. Isaiah 36:9<br />378. <br />379. <br />380. <br />381. 9"How then can you repulse one official of the least of my master's servants and (A)rely on Egypt for chariots and for horsemen?<br />382. <br />383. <br />384. <br />385. 1. Isaiah 36:9 : Is 20:5; 30:2-5, 7; 31:3<br />386. <br />387. <br />388. <br />389. <br />390. <br />391. <br />392. <br />393. Isaiah 30:3<br />394. <br />395. <br />396. <br />397. <br />398. 3"Therefore the safety of Pharaoh will be (A)your shame<br />399. And the shelter in the shadow of Egypt, your humiliation.<br />400. <br />401. <br />402. <br />403. 1. Isaiah 30:3 : Is 20:5, 6; 36:6; Jer 42:18, 22<br />404. <br />405. <br />406. <br />407. <br />408. <br />409. <br />410. <br />411. Isaiah 20:5<br />412. <br />413. <br />414. <br />415. 5"Then they will be (A)dismayed and ashamed because of Cush their hope and Egypt their (B)boast.<br />416. <br />417. <br />418. <br />419. 1. Isaiah 20:5 : 2 Kin 18:21; Is 30:3-5; 31:1; Ezek 29:6, 7<br />420. 2. Isaiah 20:5 : Jer 9:23, 24; 17:5; 1 Cor 3:21<br />421. <br />422. <br />423. <br />424. <br />425. <br />426. <br />427. <br />428. Isaiah 20:6<br />429. <br />430. <br />431. <br />432. 6"So the inhabitants of this coastland will say in that day, 'Behold, such is our hope, where we fled (A)for help to be delivered from the king of Assyria; and we, (B)how shall we escape?'"<br />433. <br />434. <br />435. <br />436. 1. Isaiah 20:6 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3; Jer 30:1, 7, 15-17; 31:1-3<br />437. 2. Isaiah 20:6 : Matt 23:33; 1 Thess 5:3; Heb 2:3<br />438. <br />439. <br />440. <br />441. <br />442. <br />443. <br />444. <br />445. Isaiah 36:6<br />446. <br />447. <br />448. <br />449. 6"Behold, you rely on the (A)staff of this crushed reed, even on Egypt, on which if a man leans, it will go into his hand and pierce it (B)So is Pharaoh king of Egypt to all who rely on him.<br />450. <br />451. <br />452. <br />453. 1. Isaiah 36:6 : Ezek 29:6, 7<br />454. 2. Isaiah 36:6 : Ps 146:3; Is 30:3, 5, 7<br />455. <br />456. <br />457. <br />458. <br />459. <br />460. <br />461. <br />462. Jeremiah 42:18<br />463. <br />464. <br />465. <br />466. 18For thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, "As My (A)anger and wrath have been poured out on the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so My wrath will be poured out on you when you enter Egypt And you will become a (B)curse, an object of horror, an imprecation and a reproach; and you will see this place no more."<br />467. <br />468. <br />469. <br />470. 1. Jeremiah 42:18 : 2 Chr 36:16-19; Jer 7:20; 33:5; 39:1-9<br />471. 2. Jeremiah 42:18 : Deut 29:21; Is 65:15; Jer 18:16; 24:9; 29:18; 44:12<br />472. 3. Jeremiah 42:18 : Jer 22:10, 27<br />473. Jeremiah 42:18; Jeremiah 42:22; Isaiah 30:4; Isaiah 19:11; Isaiah 30:5; Jeremiah 2:36; Isaiah 10:3; Isaiah 30:7; Isaiah 31:3; Job 9:13; Psalm 87:4; Psalm 89:10; Isaiah 51:9; Ezekiel 28:9; 2 Thessalonians 2:4; Isaiah 36:9; Isaiah 9:17; Jeremiah 15:6 (New American Standard Bible)<br />474. <br />475. Jeremiah 42:18<br />476. <br />477. <br />478. <br />479. 18For thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, "As My (A)anger and wrath have been poured out on the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so My wrath will be poured out on you when you enter Egypt And you will become a (B)curse, an object of horror, an imprecation and a reproach; and you will see this place no more."<br />480. <br />481. <br />482. <br />483. 1. Jeremiah 42:18 : 2 Chr 36:16-19; Jer 7:20; 33:5; 39:1-9<br />484. 2. Jeremiah 42:18 : Deut 29:21; Is 65:15; Jer 18:16; 24:9; 29:18; 44:12<br />485. 3. Jeremiah 42:18 : Jer 22:10, 27<br />486. <br />487. <br />488. <br />489. <br />490. <br />491. <br />492. <br />493. Jeremiah 42:22<br />494. <br />495. <br />496. <br />497. 22Therefore you should now clearly understand that you will (A)die by the sword, by famine and by pestilence, in the (B)place where you wish to go to reside.<br />498. <br />499. <br />500. <br />501. 1. Jeremiah 42:22 : Jer 43:11; Ezek 6:11<br />502. 2. Jeremiah 42:22 : Hos 9:6<br />503. <br />504. <br />505. <br />506. <br />507. <br />508. <br />509. <br />510. Isaiah 30:4<br />511. <br />512. <br />513. <br />514. <br />515. 4"For (A)their princes are at Zoan<br />516. And their ambassadors arrive at Hanes.<br />517. <br />518. <br />519. <br />520. 1. Isaiah 30:4 : Is 19:11<br />521. <br />522. <br />523. <br />524. <br />525. <br />526. <br />527. <br />528. Isaiah 19:11<br />529. <br />530. <br />531. <br />532. <br />533. 11The princes of (A)Zoan are mere fools;<br />534. The advice of Pharaoh's wisest advisers has become stupid<br />535. How can you men say to Pharaoh,<br />536. "I am a son of the (B)wise, a son of ancient kings"?<br />537. <br />538. <br />539. <br />540. 1. Isaiah 19:11 : Num 13:22; Ps 78:12, 43; Is 30:4<br />541. 2. Isaiah 19:11 : Gen 41:38, 39; 1 Kin 4:30; Acts 7:22<br />542. <br />543. <br />544. <br />545. <br />546. <br />547. <br />548. <br />549. Isaiah 30:5<br />550. <br />551. <br />552. <br />553. <br />554. 5"Everyone will be (A)ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,<br />555. Who are (B)not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."<br />556. The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme. <br /><br />557. <br />558. <br />559. 1. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36<br />560. 2. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3<br />561. <br />562. <br />563. <br />564. <br />565. <br />566. <br />567. <br />568. Jeremiah 2:36<br />569. <br />570. <br />571. <br />572. <br />573. 36"Why do you (A)go around so much<br />574. Changing your way?<br />575. Also, (B)you will be put to shame by Egypt<br />576. As you were put to shame by Assyria.<br />577. <br />578. <br />579. <br />580. 1. Jeremiah 2:36 : Jer 2:23; 31:22; Hos 12:1<br />581. 2. Jeremiah 2:36 : Is 30:3<br />582. 3. Jeremiah 2:36 : 2 Chr 28:16, 20, 21<br />583. <br />584. <br />585. <br />586. <br />587. <br />588. <br />589. <br />590. Isaiah 30:5<br />591. <br />592. <br />593. <br />594. <br />595. 5"Everyone will be (A)ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,<br />596. Who are (B)not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."<br />597. <br />598. <br />599. <br />600. 1. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36<br />601. 2. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3<br />602. <br />603. <br />604. <br />605. <br />606. <br />607. <br />608. <br />609. Isaiah 10:3<br />610. <br />611. <br />612. <br />613. <br />614. 3Now (A)what will you do in the (B)day of punishment,<br />615. And in the devastation which will come from afar?<br />616. To whom will you flee for help?<br />617. And where will you leave your wealth?<br />618. <br />619. <br />620. <br />621. 1. Isaiah 10:3 : Job 31:14<br />622. 2. Isaiah 10:3 : Is 13:6; 26:14, 21; 29:6; Jer 9:9; Hos 9:7; Luke 19:44<br />623. 3. Isaiah 10:3 : Is 5:26<br />624. 4. Isaiah 10:3 : Is 20:6; 30:5, 7; 31:3<br />625. <br />626. <br />627. <br />628. <br />629. <br />630. <br />631. <br />632. Isaiah 30:7<br />633. <br />634. <br />635. <br />636. <br />637. 7Even Egypt, whose (A)help is vain and empty<br />638. Therefore, I have called her<br />639. "(B)Rahab who has been exterminated."<br />640. <br />641. <br />642. <br />643. 1. Isaiah 30:7 : Is 30:5<br />644. 2. Isaiah 30:7 : Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9<br />645. <br />646. <br />647. <br />648. <br />649. <br />650. <br />651. <br />652. Isaiah 31:3<br />653. <br />654. <br />655. <br />656. <br />657. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,<br />658. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;<br />659. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,<br />660. And he who helps will stumble<br />661. And he who is helped will fall,<br />662. And all of them will come to an end together.<br />663. <br />664. <br />665. <br />666. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4<br />667. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9<br />668. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34<br />669. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14<br />670. <br />671. <br />672. <br />673. <br />674. <br />675. <br />676. <br />677. Isaiah 30:7<br />678. <br />679. <br />680. <br />681. <br />682. 7Even Egypt, whose (A)help is vain and empty<br />683. Therefore, I have called her<br />684. "(B)Rahab who has been exterminated."<br />685. <br />686. <br />687. <br />688. 1. Isaiah 30:7 : Is 30:5<br />689. 2. Isaiah 30:7 : Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9<br />690. <br />691. <br />692. <br />693. <br />694. <br />695. <br />696. <br />697. Isaiah 30:5<br />698. <br />699. <br />700. <br />701. <br />702. 5"Everyone will be (A)ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,<br />703. Who are (B)not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."<br />704. <br />705. <br />706. <br />707. 1. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36<br />708. 2. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3<br />709. <br />710. <br />711. <br />712. <br />713. <br />714. <br />715. <br />716. Isaiah 30:7<br />717. <br />718. <br />719. <br />720. <br />721. 7Even Egypt, whose (A)help is vain and empty<br />722. Therefore, I have called her<br />723. "(B)Rahab who has been exterminated."<br />724. <br />725. <br />726. <br />727. 1. Isaiah 30:7 : Is 30:5<br />728. 2. Isaiah 30:7 : Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9<br />729. <br />730. <br />731. <br />732. <br />733. <br />734. <br />735. <br />736. Job 9:13<br />737. <br />738. <br />739. <br />740. <br />741. <br />742. 13"God will not turn back His anger;<br />743. Beneath Him crouch the helpers of (A)Rahab.<br />744. <br />745. <br />746. <br />747. 1. Job 9:13 : Job 26:12; Ps 89:10; Is 30:7; 51:9<br />748. <br />749. <br />750. <br />751. <br />752. <br />753. <br />754. <br />755. Psalm 87:4<br />756. <br />757. <br />758. <br />759. <br />760. <br />761. 4"I shall mention [a](A)Rahab and Babylon among those who know Me;<br />762. Behold, Philistia and (B)Tyre with Ethiopia:<br />763. 'This one was born there.'"<br />764. <br />765. <br />766. <br />767. 1. Psalm 87:4 I.e. Egypt<br />768. <br />769. <br />770. <br />771. <br />772. 1. Psalm 87:4 : Job 9:13; Ps 89:10; Is 19:23-25<br />773. 2. Psalm 87:4 : Ps 45:12<br />774. 3. Psalm 87:4 : Ps 68:31<br />775. <br />776. <br />777. <br />778. <br />779. <br />780. <br />781. <br />782. Psalm 89:10<br />783. <br />784. <br />785. <br />786. <br />787. <br />788. 10You Yourself crushed (A)Rahab like one who is slain;<br />789. You (B)scattered Your enemies with Your mighty arm.<br />790. <br />791. <br />792. <br />793. 1. Psalm 89:10 : Ps 87:4; Is 30:7; 51:9<br />794. 2. Psalm 89:10 : Ps 18:14; 68:1; 144:6<br />795. <br />796. <br />797. <br />798. <br />799. <br />800. <br />801. <br />802. Isaiah 51:9<br />803. <br />804. <br />805. <br />806. <br />807. 9(A)Awake, awake, put on strength, O arm of the LORD;<br />808. Awake as in the (B)days of old, the generations of long ago<br />809. Was it not You who cut Rahab in pieces,<br />810. Who pierced the dragon?<br />811. <br />812. <br />813. <br />814. 1. Isaiah 51:9 : Is 51:17; 52:1<br />815. 2. Isaiah 51:9 : Ex 6:6; Deut 4:34<br />816. 3. Isaiah 51:9 : Job 26:12; Ps 89:10; Is 30:7<br />817. 4. Isaiah 51:9 : Ps 74:13; Is 27:1<br />818. <br />819. <br />820. <br />821. <br />822. <br />823. <br />824. <br />825. Isaiah 31:3<br />826. <br />827. <br />828. <br />829. <br />830. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,<br />831. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;<br />832. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,<br />833. And he who helps will stumble<br />834. And he who is helped will fall,<br />835. And all of them will come to an end together.<br />836. <br />837. <br />838. <br />839. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4<br />840. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9<br />841. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34<br />842. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14<br />843. <br />844. <br />845. <br />846. <br />847. <br />848. <br />849. <br />850. Ezekiel 28:9<br />851. <br />852. <br />853. <br />854. <br />855. 9'Will you still say, "I am a god,"<br />856. In the presence of your slayer,<br />857. Though you are a man and not God,<br />858. In the hands of those who wound you?<br />859. <br />860. <br />861. <br />862. <br />863. <br />864. <br />865. 2 Thessalonians 2:4<br />866. <br />867. <br />868. <br />869. <br />870. 4who opposes and exalts himself above (A)every so-called god or object of worship, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, (B)displaying himself as being God.<br />871. <br />872. <br />873. <br />874. 1. 2 Thessalonians 2:4 : 1 Cor 8:5<br />875. 2. 2 Thessalonians 2:4 : Is 14:14; Ezek 28:2<br />876. <br />877. <br />878. <br />879. <br />880. <br />881. <br />882. <br />883. Isaiah 31:3<br />884. <br />885. <br />886. <br />887. <br />888. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,<br />889. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;<br />890. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,<br />891. And he who helps will stumble<br />892. And he who is helped will fall,<br />893. And all of them will come to an end together.<br />894. <br />895. <br />896. <br />897. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4<br />898. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9<br />899. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34<br />900. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14<br />901. <br />902. <br />903. <br />904. <br />905. <br />906. <br />907. <br />908. Isaiah 36:9<br />909. <br />910. <br />911. <br />912. 9"How then can you repulse one official of the least of my master's servants and (A)rely on Egypt for chariots and for horsemen?<br />913. <br />914. <br />915. <br />916. 1. Isaiah 36:9 : Is 20:5; 30:2-5, 7; 31:3<br />917. <br />918. <br />919. <br />920. <br />921. <br />922. <br />923. <br />924. Isaiah 31:3<br />925. <br />926. <br />927. <br />928. <br />929. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,<br />930. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;<br />931. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,<br />932. And he who helps will stumble<br />933. And he who is helped will fall,<br />934. And all of them will come to an end together.<br />935. <br />936. <br />937. <br />938. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4<br />939. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9<br />940. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34<br />941. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14<br />942. <br />943. <br />944. <br />945. <br />946. <br />947. <br />948. <br />949. Isaiah 9:17<br />950. <br />951. <br />952. <br />953. <br />954. 17Therefore the Lord does (A)not take pleasure in their young men,<br />955. (B)Nor does He have pity on their orphans or their widows;<br />956. For every one of them is godless and an evildoer,<br />957. And every mouth is speaking foolishness<br />958. In spite of all this, His anger does not turn away<br />959. And His hand is still stretched out.<br />960. <br />961. <br />962. <br />963. 1. Isaiah 9:17 : Jer 18:21; Amos 4:10; 8:13<br />964. 2. Isaiah 9:17 : Is 27:11<br />965. 3. Isaiah 9:17 : Is 10:6; 32:6<br />966. 4. Isaiah 9:17 : Is 1:4; 14:20; 31:2<br />967. 5. Isaiah 9:17 : Matt 12:34<br />968. 6. Isaiah 9:17 : Is 5:25<br />969. <br />970. <br />971. <br />972. <br />973. <br />974. <br />975. <br />976. Jeremiah 15:6<br />977. <br />978. <br />979. <br />980. <br />981. 6"You who have (A)forsaken Me," declares the LORD,<br />982. "You keep (B)going backward<br />983. So I will stretch out My hand against you and destroy you;<br />984. I am tired of relenting!<br />985. <br />986. <br />987. <br />988. 1. Jeremiah 15:6 : Jer 6:19; 8:9<br />989. 2. Jeremiah 15:6 : Is 1:4; Jer 7:24<br />990. 3. Jeremiah 15:6 : Jer 6:12; Zeph 1:4<br />991. 4. Jeremiah 15:6 : Jer 6:11; 7:16<br />992. Ezekiel 20:33; Ezekiel 20:34; Isaiah 31:3; Isaiah 30:5; Isaiah 30:7; Matthew 15:14; Psalm 33:17; Psalm 20:7; Psalm 147:10; Proverbs 21:31 (New American Standard Bible)<br />993. <br />994. Ezekiel 20:33<br />995. <br />996. <br />997. <br />998. God Will Restore Israel to Her Land<br />999. 33"As I live," declares the Lord GOD, "surely with a mighty hand and with an (A)outstretched arm and with wrath poured out, I shall be (B)king over you.<br />1000. <br />1001. <br />1002. <br />1003. 1. Ezekiel 20:33 : Jer 21:5<br />1004. 2. Ezekiel 20:33 : Jer 51:57<br />1005. <br />1006. <br />1007. <br />1008. <br />1009. <br />1010. <br />1011. <br />1012. Ezekiel 20:34<br />1013. <br />1014. <br />1015. <br />1016. 34"I will (A)bring you out from the peoples and gather you from the lands where you are scattered, with a mighty hand and with an outstretched arm and with (B)wrath poured out;<br />1017. <br />1018. <br />1019. <br />1020. 1. Ezekiel 20:34 : Is 27:12, 13; Ezek 20:38; 34:16<br />1021. 2. Ezekiel 20:34 : Jer 42:18; 44:6; Lam 2:4<br />1022. <br />1023. <br />1024. <br />1025. <br />1026. <br />1027. <br />1028. <br />1029. Isaiah 31:3<br />1030. <br />1031. <br />1032. <br />1033. <br />1034. 3Now the Egyptians are (A)men and not God,<br />1035. And their (B)horses are flesh and not spirit;<br />1036. So the LORD will stretch out His hand,<br />1037. And he who helps will stumble<br />1038. And he who is helped will fall,<br />1039. And all of them will come to an end together.<br />1040. <br />1041. <br />1042. <br />1043. 1. Isaiah 31:3 : Ezek 28:9; 2 Thess 2:4<br />1044. 2. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 36:9<br />1045. 3. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 9:17; Jer 15:6; Ezek 20:33, 34<br />1046. 4. Isaiah 31:3 : Is 30:5, 7; Matt 15:14<br />1047. <br />1048. <br />1049. <br />1050. <br />1051. <br />1052. <br />1053. <br />1054. Isaiah 30:5<br />1055. <br />1056. <br />1057. <br />1058. <br />1059. 5"Everyone will be (A)ashamed because of a people who cannot profit them,<br />1060. Who are (B)not for help or profit, but for shame and also for reproach."<br />1061. <br />1062. <br />1063. <br />1064. 1. Isaiah 30:5 : Jer 2:36<br />1065. 2. Isaiah 30:5 : Is 10:3; 30:7; 31:3<br />1066. <br />1067. <br />1068. <br />1069. <br />1070. <br />1071. <br />1072. <br />1073. Isaiah 30:7<br />1074. <br />1075. <br />1076. <br />1077. <br />1078. 7Even Egypt, whose (A)help is vain and empty<br />1079. Therefore, I have called her<br />1080. "(B)Rahab who has been exterminated."<br />1081. <br />1082. <br />1083. <br />1084. 1. Isaiah 30:7 : Is 30:5<br />1085. 2. Isaiah 30:7 : Job 9:13; Ps 87:4; 89:10; Is 51:9<br />1086. <br />1087. <br />1088. <br />1089. <br />1090. <br />1091. <br />1092. <br />1093. Matthew 15:14<br />1094. <br />1095. <br />1096. <br />1097. <br />1098. 14"Let them alone; (A)they are blind guides [a]of the blind And (B)if a blind man guides a blind man, both will fall into a pit."<br />1099. <br />1100. <br />1101. <br />1102. 1. Matthew 15:14 Later mss add of the blind<br />1103. <br />1104. <br />1105. <br />1106. <br />1107. 1. Matthew 15:14 : Matt 23:16, 24<br />1108. 2. Matthew 15:14 : Luke 6:39<br />1109. <br />1110. <br />1111. <br />1112. <br />1113. <br />1114. <br />1115. <br />1116. Psalm 33:17<br />1117. <br />1118. <br />1119. <br />1120. <br />1121. <br />1122. 17A (A)horse is a false hope for victory;<br />1123. Nor does it deliver anyone by its great strength.<br />1124. <br />1125. <br />1126. <br />1127. 1. Psalm 33:17 : Ps 20:7; 147:10; Prov 21:31<br />1128. <br />1129. <br />1130. <br />1131. <br />1132. <br />1133. <br />1134. <br />1135. Psalm 33:17<br />1136. <br />1137. <br />1138. <br />1139. <br />1140. <br />1141. 17A (A)horse is a false hope for victory;<br />1142. Nor does it deliver anyone by its great strength.<br />1143. <br />1144. <br />1145. <br />1146. 1. Psalm 33:17 : Ps 20:7; 147:10; Prov 21:31<br />1147. <br />1148. <br />1149. <br />1150. <br />1151. <br />1152. <br />1153. <br />1154. Psalm 20:7<br />1155. <br />1156. <br />1157. <br />1158. <br />1159. 7Some boast in chariots and some in (A)horses,<br />1160. But (B)we will boast in the name of the LORD, our God.<br />1161. <br />1162. <br />1163. <br />1164. 1. Psalm 20:7 : Ps 33:17<br />1165. 2. Psalm 20:7 : 2 Chr 32:8<br />1166. <br />1167. <br />1168. <br />1169. <br />1170. <br />1171. <br />1172. <br />1173. Psalm 147:10<br />1174. <br />1175. <br />1176. <br />1177. <br />1178. <br />1179. 10He does not delight in the strength of the (A)horse;<br />1180. He (B)does not take pleasure in the legs of a man.<br />1181. <br />1182. <br />1183. <br />1184. 1. Psalm 147:10 : Ps 33:17<br />1185. 2. Psalm 147:10 : 1 Sam 16:7<br />1186. <br />1187. <br />1188. <br />1189. <br />1190. <br />1191. <br />1192. <br />1193. Proverbs 21:31<br />1194. <br />1195. <br />1196. <br />1197. <br />1198. <br />1199. 31The (A)horse is prepared for the day of battle,<br />1200. But (B)victory belongs to the LORD.<br />1201. <br />1202. <br />1203. <br />1204. 1. Proverbs 21:31 : Ps 20:7; 33:17; Is 31:1<br />1205. 2. Proverbs 21:31 : Ps 3:8; Jer 3:23; 1 Cor 15:57<br />Exodus 14:9; 1 Kings 10:28 (New International Version)<br /><br />Exodus 14:9<br /><br /><br /><br />9 The Egyptians—all Pharaoh's horses and chariots, horsemen [a] and troops—pursued the Israelites and overtook them as they camped by the sea near Pi Hahiroth, opposite Baal Zephon.<br /><br /><br /><br /> 1. Exodus 14:9 Or charioteers ; also in verses 17, 18, 23, 26 and 28<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />1 Kings 10:28<br /><br /><br /><br />28 Solomon's horses were imported from Egypt [a] and from Kue [b]—the royal merchants purchased them from Kue.<br /><br /><br /><br /> 1. 1 Kings 10:28 Or possibly Muzur , a region in Cilicia; also in verse 29<br /> 2. 1 Kings 10:28 Probably Cilicia<br />Matthew Henry's Concise Commentary<br />31:1-5 God will oppose the help sought from workers of iniquity. Sinners may be convicted of folly by plain and self-evident truths, which they cannot deny, but will not believe. There is no escaping the judgments of God; and evil pursues sinners. The Lord of hosts will come down to fight for Mount Zion. The Lion of the tribe of Judah will appear for the defence of his church. And as birds hovering over their young ones to protect them, with such compassion and affection will the Lord of hosts defend Jerusalem. He will so defend it, as to secure its safety.<br />Exodus 14:9; 1 Kings 10:28 (The Message)<br />The Message (MSG)<br />Exodus 14:9<br /><br /> <br /><br /> 8-9 God made Pharaoh king of Egypt stubborn, determined to chase the Israelites as they walked out on him without even looking back. The Egyptians gave chase and caught up with them where they had made camp by the sea—all Pharaoh's horse-drawn chariots and their riders, all his foot soldiers there at Pi Hahiroth opposite Baal Zephon.<br /><br /><br />The Message (MSG)<br /><br /> <br /> <br />1 Kings 10:28<br /><br /> <br /><br /> 26-29 Solomon collected chariots and horses: fourteen hundred chariots and twelve thousand horses! He stabled them in the special chariot cities as well as in Jerusalem. The king made silver as common as rocks and cedar as common as the fig trees in the lowland hills. His horses were brought in from Egypt and Cilicia, specially acquired by the king's agents. Chariots from Egypt went for fifteen pounds of silver and a horse for about three and three-quarter pounds of silver. Solomon carried on a brisk horse-trading business with the Hittite and Aramean royal houses.<br /><br />Chapter 31 <br />This chapter is an abridgment of the foregoing chapter; the heads of it are much the same. Here is, I. A woe to those who, when the Assyrian army invaded them, trusted to the Egyptians, and not to God, for succour (v. 1-3). II. Assurance given of the care God would take of Jerusalem in that time of danger and distress (v. 4, 5). III. A call to repentance and reformation (v. 6, 7). IV. A prediction of the fall of the Assyrian army, and the fright which the Assyrian king should thereby be put into (v. 8, 9). Verses 1-5 <br /><br />This is the last of four chapters together that begin with woe; and they are all woes to the sinners that were found among the professing people of God, to the drunkards of Ephraim (ch. 28:1), to Ariel (ch. 29:1), to the rebellious children (ch. 30:1), and here to those that go down to Egypt for help; for men's relation to the church will not secure them from divine woes if they live in contempt of divine laws. Observe,<br /><br />I. What the sin was that is here reproved, v. 1. 1. Idolizing the Egyptians, and making court to them, as if happy were the people that had the Egyptians for their friends and allies. They go down to Egypt for help in every exigence, as if the worshippers of false gods had a better interest in heaven and were more likely to have success of earth than the servants of the living and true God. That which invited them to Egypt was that the Egyptians had many chariots to accommodate them with, and horses and horsemen that were strong; and, if they could get a good body of forces thence into their service, they would think themselves able to deal with the king of Assyria and his numerous army. Their kings were forbidden to multiply horses and chariots, and were told of the folly of trusting to them (Ps. 20:7); but they think themselves wiser than their Bible. 2. Slighting the God of Israel: They look not to the Holy One of Israel, as if he were not worth taking notice of in this distress. They advise not with him, seek not his favour, nor are in any care to make him their friend.<br /><br />II. The gross absurdity and folly of this sin. 1. They neglected one whom, if they would not hope in him, they had reason to fear. They do not seek the Lord, nor make their application to him, yet he also is wise, v. 2. They are solicitous to get the Egyptians into an alliance with them, because they have the reputation of a politic people; and is not God wise too? and would not infinite wisdom, engaged on their side, stand them in more stead than all the policies of Egypt? They are at the pains of going down to Egypt, a tedious journey, when they might have had better advice, and better help, by looking up to heaven, and would not. But, if they will not court God's wisdom to act for them, they shall find it act against them. He is wise, too wise for them to outwit, and he will bring evil upon those who thus affront him. He will not call back his words as men do (because they are fickle and foolish), but he will arise against the house of the evil-doers, this cabal of them that go down to Egypt; God will appear to their confusion, according to the word that he has spoken, and will oppose the help they think to bring in from the workers of iniquity. Some think the Egyptians made it one condition of their coming into an alliance with him that they should worship the gods of Egypt, and they consented to it, and therefore they are both called evil-doers and workers of iniquity. 2. They trusted to those who were unable to help them and would soon appear to be so, v. 3. Let them know that the Egyptians, whom they depend so much upon, are men and not God. As it is good for men to know themselves to be but men (Ps. 9:20), so it is good for us to consider that those we love and trust to are but men. They therefore can do nothing without God, nothing against him, nothing in comparison with him. They are men, and therefore fickle and foolish, mutable and mortal, here to day and gone to morrow; they are men, and therefore let us not make gods of them, by making them our hope and confidence, and expecting that in them which is to be found in God only; they are not God, they cannot do that for us which God can do, and will, if we trust in him. Let us not then neglect him, to seek to them; let us not forsake the rock of ages for broken reeds, nor the fountain of living waters for broken cisterns. The Egyptians indeed have horses that are very strong; but they are flesh, and not spirit, and therefore, strong as they are, they may be wearied with a long march, and become unserviceable, or be wounded and slain in battle, and leave their riders to be ridden over. Every one knows this, that the Egyptians are not God and their horses are not spirit; but those that seek to them for help do not consider it, else they would not put such confidence in them. Sinners may be convicted of folly by the plainest and most self-evident truths, which they cannot deny, but will not believe. 3. They would certainly be ruined with the Egyptians they trusted in, v. 3. When the Lord does but stretch out his hand how easily, how effectually, will he make them ashamed of their confidence in Egypt, and the Egyptians ashamed of the encouragement they gave them to trust in them; for he that helps and he that is helped shall fall together, and their mutual alliance shall prove their joint ruin. The Egyptians were shortly to be reckoned with, as appears by the burden of Egypt (ch. 19), and then those who fled to them for shelter and succour should fall with them; for there is no escaping the judgments of God. Evil pursues sinners, and it is just with God to make that creature a scourge to us which we make an idol of. 4. They took God's work out of his hands. They pretended a great deal of care to preserve Jerusalem, in advising to an alliance with Egypt; and, when others would not fall in with their measures, they pleaded self preservation, and went to Egypt themselves. Now the prophet here tells them that Jerusalem should be preserved without aid from Egypt and that those who tarried there should be safe when those who fled to Egypt should be ruined. Jerusalem was under God's protection, and therefore there was no occasion to put it under the protection of Egypt. But a practical distrust of God's all-sufficiency is at the bottom of all our sinful departures from him to the creature. The prophet tells them he had it from God's own mouth: Thus hath the Lord spoken to me. They might depend upon it, (1.) That God would appear against Jerusalem's enemies with the boldness of a lion over his prey, v. 4. When the lion comes out to seize his prey a multitude of shepherds come out against him; for it becomes neighbours to help one another when persons or goods are in danger. These shepherds dare not come near the lion; all they can do is to make a noise, and with that they think to frighten him off. But does he regard it? No: he will not be afraid of their voice, nor abase himself so far as to be in the least moved by it either to quit his prey or to make any more haste than otherwise he would do in seizing it. Thus will the Lord of hosts come down to fight for Mount Zion, with such an unshaken undaunted resolution not to be moved by any opposition; and he will as easily and irresistibly destroy the Assyrian army as a lion tears a lamb in pieces. Whoever appear against God, they are but like a multitude of poor simple shepherds shouting at a lion, who scorns to take notice of them or so much as to alter his pace for them. Surely those that have such a protector need not go to Egypt for help. (2.) That God would appear for Jerusalem's friends with the tenderness of a bird over her young, v. 5. God was ready to gather Jerusalem, as a hen gathers her brood under her wings (Mt. 23:37); but those that trusted to the Egyptians would not be gathered. As birds flying to their nests with all possible speed, when they see them attacked, and fluttering about their nests with all possible concern, hovering over their young ones to protect them and drive away the assailants, with such compassion and affection will the Lord of hosts defend Jerusalem. As an eagle stirs up her young when they are in danger, takes them and bears them on her wings, so the Lord led Israel out of Egypt (Deu. 32:11, 12); and he has now the same tender concern for them that he had then, so that they need not flee into Egypt again for shelter. Defending, he will deliver it; he will so defend it as to secure the continuance of its safety, not defend it for a while and abandon it at last, but defend it so that it shall not fall into the enemies' hand. I will defend this city to save it, ch. 37:35. Passing over he will preserve it; the word for passing over is used in this sense only here and Ex. 12:12, 23, 27, concerning the destroying angel's passing over the houses of the Israelites when he slew all the first-born of the Egyptians, to which story this passage refers. The Assyrian army was to be routed by a destroying angel, who should pass over Jerusalem, though that deserved to be destroyed, and draw his sword only against the besiegers. They shall be slain by the pestilence, but none of the besieged shall take the infection. Thus he will again pass over the houses of his people and secure them<br />1. For the Russian sect, see Filippians.<br /><br />The Epistle to the Philippians (or simply Philippians) is a book included in the New Testament of the Bible. It is a letter from St. Paul to the church of Philippi. It is one of the authentic Pauline epistles, written c 62.[1]<br />Contents<br />[hide]<br /><br /> * 1 Authorship<br /> * 2 Background<br /> * 3 Historical background<br /> * 4 References<br /> * 5 Sources<br /> * 6 External links<br /><br />[edit] Authorship<br /><br />Pauline authorship of Philippians is "universally accepted" (Beare, p. 1) by virtually all Bible scholars, ancient and modern, with the exception of the kenosis passage in Philippians 2:5-11. According to some theologians this may have been a Christian hymn that Paul quoted.<br /><br />[edit] Background<br /><br />The letter was written to the church at Philippi, one of the earliest churches to be founded in Europe. They were very attached to Paul, just as he was very fond of them. Of all the churches, their contributions (which Paul gratefully acknowledges) are among the only he accepts. (Acts 20:33-35; 2 Cor. 11:7-12; 2 Thess. 3:8). The generosity of the Philippians comes out very conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). "This was a characteristic of the Macedonian missions, as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and beautifully prove. It is remarkable that the Macedonian converts were, as a class, very poor (2 Cor. 8:2), though the very first converts were of all classes (Acts 16); and the parallel facts, their poverty and their open-handed support of the great missionary and his work, are deeply harmonious. At the present day the missionary liberality of poor Christians is, in proportion, really greater than that of the rich" (Moule).<br /><br />[edit] Historical background<br /><br />The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their messenger, with contributions to meet the needs of Paul; and on his return Paul sent this letter with him. With this precious communication Epaphroditus sets out on his homeward journey. "The joy caused by his return, and the effect of this wonderful letter when first read in the church of Philippi, are hidden from us. And we may almost say that with this letter the church itself passes from our view. To-day, in silent meadows, quiet cattle browse among the ruins which mark the site of what was once the flourishing Roman colony of Philippi, the home of the most attractive church of the apostolic age. But the name and fame and spiritual influence of that church will never pass. To myriads of men and women in every age and nation the letter written in while he was under house arrest in Rome, and carried along the Egnatian Way by an obscure Christian messenger, has been a light divine and a cheerful guide along the most rugged paths of life".[2]<br /><br />[edit] References<br /><br /> 1. ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.<br /> 2. ^ "Easton's Bible Dictionary: Philippians, Epistle to". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved on 2008-07-25.<br /><br />[edit] Sources<br /><br /> * Beare, F. W. (1959). A Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians. Harper & Row; reprint, Harper’s New Testament Commentaries, ed. Henry Chadwick. (1987). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.<br /> * Moule, H. C. G. (1981). The Epistle to the Philippians. Baker Book House.<br />Filippians<br />From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />Jump to: navigation, search<br />For other uses, see Filippians (disambiguation).<br /><br />Filippians or Philippians (Russian: Филипповцы) was a soglasiye (confession, literally, "agreement") of the Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") strain of Old Believers. They detached themselves from Pomortsy under the leadership of a "teacher" Filipp at the beginning of the 18th century. Because of the repressions of the government, they started practicing self-immolation as a means for the "preservation of the faith". In the second half of the 18th century their fanaticism decreased, and several other confessions were spun off: Aaronovtsy (Aaron's Confession), Shepherd's Confession (пастухово согласие), and many others.<br /><br /><br />This article about a Christian denomination is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.<br /> This Russia-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.<br />Image:ICXC NIKA Cross-sm.png This Eastern Orthodox Christianity-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.<br />Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippians"<br />Categories: Christian denomination stubs | Russia stubs | Eastern Orthodoxy stubs | Religious organizations established in the 18th century | Old Believers<br />ew Testament<br />From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />Jump to: navigation, search<br />This article is about part of the Bible. For the theological reformulation, see New Covenant.<br /><br />The New Testament (Greek: Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Kainē Diathēkē) is the name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, the first such division being the much longer Hebrew Bible (also called by Jews Tanakh), known to Christians as the Old Testament. It is sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, or the New Covenant – which is the literal translation of the original Greek. The original texts were written in Koine Greek by various authors after c. AD 45 and before c. AD 140. Its 27 books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of Christianity, and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture. Although certain Christian sects differ as to which works are included in the New Testament, the vast majority of denominations have settled on the same twenty-seven book canon: it consists of the four narratives of Jesus Christ's ministry, called "Gospels"; a narrative of the Apostles' ministries in the early church, which is also a sequel to the third Gospel; twenty-one early letters, commonly called "epistles" in Biblical context, written by various authors and consisting mostly of Christian counsel and instruction; and an Apocalyptic prophecy, which is technically the twenty-second epistle. Although the traditional timeline of composition may have been taken into account by the shapers of the current New Testament format, it is not, nor was it meant to be, in strictly chronological order. Though Jesus speaks Aramaic in it, the New Testament (including the Gospels) was written in Greek because that was the lingua franca of the Roman Empire.<br />New Testament<br /><br /> * Matthew<br /> * Mark<br /> * Luke<br /> * John<br /> * Acts<br /> * Romans<br /> * 1 Corinthians<br /> * 2 Corinthians<br /> * Galatians<br /> * Ephesians<br /> * Philippians<br /> * Colossians<br /> * 1 Thessalonians<br /> * 2 Thessalonians<br /> * 1 Timothy<br /> * 2 Timothy<br /> * Titus<br /> * Philemon<br /> * Hebrews<br /> * James<br /> * 1 Peter<br /> * 2 Peter<br /> * 1 John<br /> * 2 John<br /> * 3 John<br /> * Jude<br /> * Revelation<br /><br />This box: view • talk • edit<br />Contents<br />[hide]<br /><br /> * 1 Gospels<br /> * 2 Acts<br /> * 3 Pauline epistles<br /> * 4 General or Catholic epistles<br /> * 5 Revelation<br /> * 6 Order<br /> * 7 Apocrypha<br /> * 8 Language<br /> * 9 Etymology<br /> * 10 Authorship<br /> * 11 Date of composition<br /> * 12 Canonization<br /> * 13 Early manuscripts<br /> * 14 Early Versions<br /> o 14.1 Syriac Versions<br /> o 14.2 Latin Versions<br /> o 14.3 Coptic Versions<br /> o 14.4 Versions in other languages<br /> * 15 Additions<br /> * 16 Authority<br /> o 16.1 Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy<br /> o 16.2 Protestantism<br /> + 16.2.1 American Evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism<br /> + 16.2.2 American Mainline and liberal Protestantism<br /> o 16.3 Messianic Judaism<br /> * 17 See also<br /> * 18 Notes<br /> * 19 Further reading<br /> * 20 External links<br /> o 20.1 Source text of New Testament<br /> + 20.1.1 Greek<br /> + 20.1.2 Other languages<br /> o 20.2 General references<br /> o 20.3 Development and authorship<br /><br />[edit] Gospels<br /><br />Each of the Gospels narrates the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. The traditional author is listed after each entry. Modern scholarship differs on precisely by whom, when, or in what original form the various gospels were written.<br /><br /> * The Gospel of Matthew, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Matthew, son of Alphaeus.<br /> * The Gospel of Mark, traditionally ascribed to Mark the Evangelist, who wrote down the recollections of the Apostle Simon Peter.<br /> * The Gospel of Luke, traditionally ascribed to Luke, a physician and companion of the Apostle Paul.<br /> * The Gospel of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee<br /><br />The first three are commonly classified as the Synoptic Gospels. They contain very similar accounts of events in Jesus' life. The Gospel of John stands apart for its unique records of several miracles and sayings of Jesus, not found elsewhere.<br /><br /> See also: synoptic problem<br /><br />[edit] Acts<br /><br />The book of Acts, also termed Acts of the Apostles or Acts of the Holy Spirit, is a narrative of the Apostles' ministry after Christ's death and subsequent resurrection, which is also a sequel to the third Gospel. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and Luke share the same author.<br /><br /> * Acts, traditionally Luke.<br /><br />[edit] Pauline epistles<br /><br />The Pauline epistles (or Corpus Paulinum) constitute those epistles traditionally attributed to Paul. However the authorship of a number of the other epistles is sometimes disputed (see section on authorship below, and Authorship of the Pauline epistles). <br /><br /> * Epistle to the Romans<br /> * First Epistle to the Corinthians<br /> * Second Epistle to the Corinthians<br /> * Epistle to the Galatians<br /> * Epistle to the Ephesians<br /> * Epistle to the Philippians<br /> * Epistle to the Colossians<br /> * First Epistle to the Thessalonians<br /> * Second Epistle to the Thessalonians<br /> * First Epistle to Timothy<br /> * Second Epistle to Timothy<br /> * Epistle to Titus<br /> * Epistle to Philemon<br /><br />[hide]<br /><br />Part of a series of articles on<br />Christianity<br /><br /><br /> <br />Jesus Christ<br />Virgin birth • Crucifixion • Resurrection<br />Foundations<br />Church • New Covenant<br />Apostles • Kingdom • Gospel • Timeline<br />Bible<br />Old Testament • New Testament<br />Books • Canon • Apocrypha<br />Christian theology<br />Trinity • (Father • Son • Holy Spirit)<br />History of • Theology • Apologetics<br />History and traditions<br />Early • Councils • Creeds • Missions<br />East-West Schism • Crusades • Reformation<br />Denominations<br />[show]Catholicism<br />Anglican • Eastern Catholic • Independent Catholic • Old Catholic • Roman Catholic<br />[show]Protestantism<br />Lutheran • Reformed • Anabaptist • Baptist • Methodist • Adventist • Evangelicalism • Holiness • Pentecostal<br />[show]Orthodoxy<br /><br />Eastern Orthodoxy • Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysite) • Syriac Christianity (inc. Nestorian Assyrians)<br />[show]Nontrinitarian<br /><br />Jehovah's Witnesses • Latter Day Saint movement • Unitarianism • Christadelphians • Oneness Pentecostalism<br />Topics in Christianity<br />Preaching • Prayer • Ecumenism<br />Relation to other religions • Movements<br />Music • Liturgy • Calendar<br />Symbols • Art • Criticism<br />Christianity Portal<br />This box: view • talk • edit<br /><br />[edit] General or Catholic epistles<br /><br /> See main article: General epistles<br /><br />Includes those Epistles written to the church at large (Catholic in this sense simply means universal).<br /><br /> * Epistle to the Hebrews, anonymous and unknown authorship<br /> * Epistle of James, traditionally by James, brother of Jesus and Jude Thomas.<br /> * First Epistle of Peter, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Simon, called Peter.<br /> * Second Epistle of Peter, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Simon, called Peter.<br /> * First Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee.<br /> * Second Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee.<br /> * Third Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee.<br /> * Epistle of Jude, traditionally ascribed to Jude Thomas, brother of Jesus and James.<br /><br />[edit] Revelation<br /><br />The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation. The authorship is attributed either to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee or to John of Patmos. For a discussion of authorship see Authorship of the Johannine works.<br /><br />Revelation is sometimes called The Apocalypse of John. It is also not read or used during church services by the Orthodox church.<br /><br />See also: Apocalyptic literature, Bible prophecy<br /><br />[edit] Order<br /><br />The New Testament books are ordered differently in different Church Traditions. For example most Protestant Bibles follow the Roman Catholic order, but the Lutheran order is different. Outside the Western European Catholic/Protestant world there are different orders in the Slavonic, Syriac and Ethiopian Bibles.<br /><br />[edit] Apocrypha<br /><br /> Main article: New Testament apocrypha<br /><br />In ancient times there were dozens of Christian writings claiming Apostolic authorship, or for some other reason considered to have authority by some ancient churches, but which were not ultimately included in the 27-book New Testament canon. These works are considered "apocryphal", and are therefore referred to as the New Testament Apocrypha. It includes many writings unfavourable to the position of the orthodoxy, such as Gnostic writing. These apocryphal works are nevertheless important insofar as they provide an ancient context and setting for the composition of the canonical books. They also can help establish linguistic conventions common in the canonical texts. Examples of early apocryphal works are the Gospel of Thomas, the Epistle of Barnabas and the Epistle to the Laodiceans.<br /><br />[edit] Language<br /> Part of a series on<br />The Bible <br /> <br />Biblical canon and books<br />Tanakh: Torah • Nevi'im • Ketuvim Old Testament • Hebrew Bible • New Testament • New Covenant • Deuterocanon • Antilegomena • Chapters & verses<br />Apocrypha: Jewish • OT • NT<br />Development and authorship<br />Panbabylonism • Jewish Canon • Old Testament canon • New Testament canon • Mosaic authorship • Pauline epistles • Johannine works<br />Translations and manuscripts<br />Septuagint • Samaritan Pentateuch • Dead Sea scrolls • Targums • Peshitta • Vetus Latina • Vulgate • Masoretic text • Gothic Bible • Luther Bible • English Bibles<br />Biblical studies<br />Dating the Bible • Biblical criticism • Higher criticism • Textual criticism • Novum Testamentum Graece •<br />NT textual categories •<br />Documentary hypothesis •<br />Synoptic problem • Historicity‎ • Internal Consistency • Archeology<br />Interpretation<br />Hermeneutics • Pesher •<br />Midrash • Pardes • Allegorical • Literalism • Prophecy<br />Views<br />Inerrancy • Infallibility • Criticism • Islamic • Qur'anic • Gnostic • Judaism and Christianity •<br />Law in Christianity<br />This box: view • talk • edit<br /><br /> Bible portal<br /><br />The common languages spoken by both Jews and Gentiles in the holy land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic, Koine Greek, and to a limited extent a colloquial dialect of Mishnaic Hebrew. However, the original text of the New Testament was most likely written in Koine Greek, the vernacular dialect in 1st century Roman provinces of the Eastern Mediterranean, and has since been widely translated into other languages, most notably, Latin, Syriac, and Coptic. However, some of the Church Fathers seem to imply that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and there is another contention that the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews wrote in Hebrew, which was translated into Greek by Luke. Neither view holds much support among contemporary scholars, who argue that the literary facets of Matthew and Hebrews suggest that they were composed directly in Greek, rather than being translated.<br /><br />A very small minority of scholars consider the Aramaic version of the New Testament to be the original and believe the Greek is a translation (see Aramaic primacy).<br /><br />[edit] Etymology<br /><br />Some believe the English term New Testament ultimately comes from the Hebrew language. New Testament is taken from the Latin Novum Testamentum first coined by Tertullian. Some believe this in turn is a translation of the earlier Koine Greek Καινή Διαθήκη (pronounced in postclassical Greek as Keni Dhiathiki). This Greek term is found in the original Greek language of the New Testament, though commonly translated as new covenant, and found even earlier in the Greek translation of the Old Testament that is called the Septuagint. At Jeremiah 31:31, the Septuagint translated this term into Greek from the original Hebrew ברית חדשה (berit chadashah). The Hebrew term is usually also translated into English as new covenant.<br /><br />As a result, some claim the term was first used by Early Christians to refer to the new covenant that was the basis for their relationship with God. About two centuries later at the time of Tertullian and Lactantius, the phrase was being used to designate a particular collection of books that some believed embodied this new covenant.<br /><br />Tertullian, in the 2nd century, is the first currently known to use the terms novum testamentum/new testament and vetus testamentum/old testament. For example, in Against Marcion book 3 [1], chapter 14, he wrote:<br /><br /> This may be understood to be the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel<br /><br />And in book 4 [2], chapter 6, he wrote:<br /><br /> For it is certain that the whole aim at which he has strenuously laboured even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets.<br /><br />Lactantius, also in Latin, in the 3rd century, in his Divine Institutes, book 4, chapter 20 [3], wrote:<br /><br /> But all Scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: [Jer 31:31–32] "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord." ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.<br /><br />The Vulgate translation, in the 5th century, used testamentum in 2nd Corinthians 3 [4]:<br /><br /> (6) Who also hath made us fit ministers of the new testament, not in the letter but in the spirit. For the letter killeth: but the spirit quickeneth. (Douay-Rheims)<br /> (14) But their senses were made dull. For, until this present day, the selfsame veil, in the reading of the old testament, remaineth not taken away (because in Christ it is made void). (Douay-Rheims)<br /><br />However, the more modern NRSV translates these verses from the Koine Greek as such:<br /><br /> (6) Who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life.<br /> (14) But their minds were hardened. Indeed, to this very day, when they hear the reading of the old covenant, that same veil is still there, since only in Christ is it set aside.<br /><br />Thus, it is common to translate using either of two English terms, testament and covenant, even though they are not synonymous.<br /><br />[edit] Authorship<br /><br /> Main articles: Authorship of the Pauline epistles and Authorship of the Johannine works<br /><br />The New Testament is a collection of works, and as such was written by multiple authors. The traditional view--that is, according to most orthodox Christians--is that all the books were written by Apostles (e.g. Matthew and Paul) or disciples working under their direction (e.g. Mark[1] and Luke[2]). However, in modern times, with the rise of rigorous historical inquiry and textual criticism, these traditional ascriptions have been rejected by some. While the traditional authors have been listed above, the modern critical view is discussed herein.<br /><br />Seven of the epistles of Paul are generally accepted by most modern scholars as authentic; these undisputed letters include Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Raymond E. Brown has this to say about Colossians: "At the present moment about 60 percent of critical scholarship holds that Paul did not write the letter" (An Introduction, p. 610; cited by earlychristianwritings.com). Liberal scholars usually question Pauline authorship for any other epistle, although there are conservative Christian scholars who accept the traditional ascriptions. However, almost no current mainstream scholars, Christian or otherwise, hold that Paul wrote Hebrews. In fact, questions about the authorship of Hebrews go back at least to the 3rd century ecclesiastical writer Caius, who attributed only thirteen epistles to Paul (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., 6.20.3ff.). A small minority of scholars hypothesize Hebrews may have been written by one of Paul's close associates, such as Barnabas, Silas, or Luke, given that the themes therein seemed to them as largely Pauline.<br /><br />The authorship of all non-Pauline books have been disputed in recent times. Ascriptions are largely polarized between Christian and non-Christian experts, making any sort of scholarly consensus all but impossible. Even majority views are unclear.<br /><br />The Synoptic Gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke, unlike the other New Testament works, have a unique interrelationship. The dominant view among non-theologian scholars is the Two-Source Hypothesis. This hypothesis proposes that both Matthew and Luke drew significantly upon the Gospel of Mark and another common source, known as the "Q Source" (Q is derived from Quelle, the German word for "source"). However, the nature and even existence of Q is speculative, and scholars have proposed variants on the hypothesis which redefine or exclude it. Most pro-Q scholars believe that it was a single written document, while a few contest that "Q" was actually a number of documents or oral traditions. If it was a documentary source, no information about its author or authors can be obtained from the resources currently available. The traditional view supposes that Matthew was written first, and Mark and Luke drew from it and the second chronological work; and some scholars have attempted to use their modern methods to confirm the idea. An even smaller group of scholars espouse Lukan priority.<br /><br />Modern scholars are skeptical about authorship claims for noncanonical books, such as the Nag Hammadi corpus discovered in Egypt in 1945. This corpus of fifty-two Coptic books, dated to about 350–400, includes gospels in the names of Thomas, Philip, James, John, and many others. Like almost all ancient works, they represent copies rather than original texts. None of the original texts has been discovered, and scholars argue about the dating of the originals. Suggested dates vary from as early as 50 to as late as the late second century for the gnostics. (See Gospel of Thomas and New Testament Apocrypha.)<br /><br />To summarize, the only books for which there are solid authorship consensuses among modern critical scholars are the Pauline epistiles mentioned above, which are universally regarded as authentic, and Hebrews, which is nearly always rejected. The remaining nineteen books remain in dispute, some holding to the traditional view, and others regarding them as anonymous or pseudonymic.<br /><br />[edit] Date of composition<br /><br />According to tradition, the earliest of the books were the letters of Paul, and the last books to be written are those attributed to John, who is traditionally said to have lived to a very old age, perhaps dying as late as 100, although this is often disputed. Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 185, stated that the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were written while Peter and Paul were preaching in Rome, which would be in the 60s, and Luke was written some time later.<br /><br />Most secular scholars agree on the dating of the majority of the New Testament, except for the epistles and books that they consider to be pseudepigraphical (i.e., those thought not to be written by their traditional authors). For the Gospels they tend to date Mark no earlier than 65 and no later than 75. Matthew is dated between 70 and 85. Luke is usually placed within 80 to 95. However various scholars disagree with this as Luke indicates in the book of Acts that he has already written the Gospel of Luke prior to writing the introduction to Acts. Acts is written in a journal form indicating that it may have been written during Paul's journeys which it documents. That would put Acts as early as the 60's and the Gospel of Luke earlier than that. This then could push back Mark into the late 50's if one believes that Mark is the source of some of Luke's material. Early church fathers seem to support parts of that. For instance Irenaeus claims "Luke recorded the teachings of Paul, after the deaths of Peter and Paul. He wrote after the Hebrew Matthew, at around the same time as Mark, and before John." Clement though claims: "Luke was written before Mark and John and at the same time as Matthew. " When taken with Clement's writing on Mark, this means that Peter and Paul were alive at the time that Luke was written. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was First Thessalonians, an epistle of Paul, written probably in 51, or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing. Of the pseudepigraphical epistles, Christian scholars tend to place them somewhere between 70 and 150, with Second Peter usually being the latest.<br /><br />In the 1830s German scholars of the Tübingen school dated the books as late as the third century, but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts and fragments, not including some of the later writings, dating as far back as 125 (notably Papyrus 52) has called such late dating into question. Additionally, a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore, some of the books of the New Testament were at least in a first-draft stage, though there is negligible evidence in these quotes or among biblical manuscripts for the existence of different early drafts. Other books were probably not completed until later, if we assume they must have been quoted by Clement or Polycarp. There are many minor discrepancies between manuscripts (largely spelling or grammatical differences).<br /><br />[edit] Canonization<br /><br /> Main article: Development of the New Testament canon<br /><br />The process of canonization was complex and lengthy. It was characterized by a compilation of books that Christians found inspiring in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament.<br /><br />Contrary to popular misconception, the New Testament canon was not summarily decided in large, bureaucratic Church council meetings, but rather developed very slowly over many centuries.<br /><br />Thus, McDonald states: [3]<br /><br /> Although a number of Christians have thought that church councils determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons, a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities.<br /><br />Similarly, from Patzia: [4]<br /><br /> It appears that the books that finally were canonized are those that enjoyed a special status and were utilized both frequently and universally by the church.<br /><br />However, this is not to say that no councils touched the issue of the canon. Some of these include the Council of Trent (also called the Tridentine Council) of 1546 for Roman Catholicism (by vote: 24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain),[5] the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Eastern Orthodoxy. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, they were only reaffirming the existing canon which was reached by mutual agreement over many centuries--they were just making it official.<br /><br />According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council."<br /><br />In the first three centuries of the Christian Church, Early Christianity, there seems not to have been a New Testament canon that was complete and universally recognized.<br /><br />One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion, c. 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (Gospel of Marcion) and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His unorthodox canon was rejected by a majority of Christians, as was he and his theology, Marcionism. Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament (1914)[5] argued that the orthodox Church at this time was largely an Old Testament Church (one that "follows the Testament of the Creator-God") without a New Testament canon and that it gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion. [6]<br /><br />The Muratorian fragment, dated at between 170 (based on an internal reference to Pope Pius I and arguments put forth by Bruce Metzger) and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the Anchor Bible Dictionary), provides the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream (that is, not Marcionite) Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.<br /><br />The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written c. 180 AD It was a claim made by Bishop Irenaeus in his polemic Against the Heresies, for example III.XI.8: "It is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the Church is scattered throughout all the world, and the “pillar and ground” of the Church is the Gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh."<br /><br />At least, then, the books considered to be authoritative included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian (all 2nd century) held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament Apocrypha.<br /><br />Eusebius, c. 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his Ecclesiastical History Book 3, Chapter XXV:<br /><br /> "1... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the Gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles... the epistles of Paul... the epistle of John... the epistle of Peter... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Apocalypse of John, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings."<br /><br /> "3 Among the disputed writings [Antilegomena], which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected [Kirsopp Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter, and in addition to these the extant epistle of Barnabas, and the so-called Teachings of the Apostles; and besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the Gospel according to the Hebrews... And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books."<br /><br /> "6... such books as the Gospels of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, or of any others besides them, and the Acts of Andrew and John and the other apostles... they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious."<br /><br />Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the Church Fathers, we know that it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." EH 4.29.6 mentions the Diatessaron: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the Gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle [Paul], in order to improve their style."[7]<br /><br />The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, Festal Letter 39. Also cited is the Council of Rome, but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397. Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the 16th century, theologian and reformer Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation. Even today, German-language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than their traditional order for other Christians. Due to the fact that some of the recognized Books of the Holy Scripture were having their canonicity questioned by Protestants in the 16th century, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional canon (that is for Catholics the canon of the Council of Rome) of the Scripture as a dogma of the Catholic Church.<br /><br />[edit] Early manuscripts<br />Rossano Gospels, 6th century, a representative of Byzantine text<br />Rossano Gospels, 6th century, a representative of Byzantine text<br /><br />The early New Testament manuscripts can be classified into certain major families or types of text. A "text-type" is the name given to a family of texts with a common ancestor. It must be noted that many early manuscripts can be composed of several different text-types. For example, Codex Washingtonianus consists of only the four gospels, and yet, different parts are written in different text-types. Four distinctive New Testament text-types have been defined:<br /><br />The Alexandrian text-type is usually considered the best and most faithful at preserving the original; it is usually brief and austere. The main examples are the Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and Bodmer Papyri.<br /><br />The Western text-type has a fondness for paraphrase and is generally the longest. Most significant is the Western version of Acts, which is 10% longer. The main examples are the Codex Bezae, Codex Claromontanus, Codex Washingtonianus, Old Latin versions (prior to the Vulgate), and quotes by Marcion, Tatian, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian.<br /><br />The Caesarean text-type is a mixture of Western and Alexandrian types and is found in the Chester Beatty Papyri, in Codex Koridethi, and is quoted by Eusebius, Cyril of Jerusalem and Armenians.<br /><br />The Byzantine text-type is the textform that is contained in a majority of the extant manuscripts and thus is often called the "Majority Text." The origin of this text is debated among scholars. Some scholars, observing that few Byzantine readings exist among early uncial manuscript witnesses, contend that the text formed late and contains conflated readings. Other scholars look to the shear number of consistent witnesses to the Byzantine textform, and the existence of readings which parallel the Byzantine textform in very early translations, as evidence that the Byzantine textform is probably the closest text to that originally penned by the New Testament authors. The Byzantine textform can be found in the Gospels of Codex Alexandrinus, later uncial texts and most minuscule texts. A variant of the Byzantine text, called the Textus Receptus, is the basis of Erasmus's printed Greek New Testament of 1516, which became the basis of the 1611 King James Version of the English New Testament.<br /><br />Most modern English versions of the New Testament are based on critical reconstructions of the Greek text, such as the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament or Nestle-Alands' Novum Testamentum Graece, which have a pronounced Alexandrian character.<br /><br />[edit] Early Versions<br /><br />The first translations (usually called "versions") of the New Testament were made in the end of 2nd century into Syriac, Latin, and Coptic languages. These three versions were made directly from Greek, before a revision of Greek text, and they are always cited in modern critical apparatus.<br /><br />[edit] Syriac Versions<br />Rabbula Gospels, Eusebian Canons<br />Rabbula Gospels, Eusebian Canons<br /><br />Syriac was spoken in Syria, and Mesopotamia, and with dialect i Palestine, where it was known as Aramaic. Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us. It is possible some translations were lost.<br /><br />Tatian, the Syrian, about A.D. 170, prepared Diatessaron, a harmony of the four Gospels i Rome. After his return to Syria he translated it into Syriac. Probably it was first translation part of New Testament from Greek into other language.<br /><br />Since 19th century we have evidences supported existence Old Syriac Version about the same time as the Diatessaron, or even a little earlier (Curetonianus, Syrus Sinaiticus from 5th or 4th century). They contain text of the four Gospels. The text of Acts and the Pauline Epistles has not survived to our time. We know only citations made by Eastern fathers. Old Syriac version is a representative of the Western text-type. The Peshitta version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century. It contains only 22 books (2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation were not translated).<br /><br />Philoxenian, probably was produced in 508 for Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabung.[8]<br /><br />[edit] Latin Versions<br /><br />The Gospels were translated into Latin during the last quarter of the second century in North Africa (Afra). Not much later arose European Latin translation (Itala). The African Latin manuscripts are not numerous (Itala about 80 mss.). Old Latin Verions support the Western type of text.<br /><br />Because of ununiformed text Old Latin versions, interpolations, and corruption Jerome prepared another translation - Vulgate. In fact it was only revision of Itala, and only Gospels were revised precisely. We have 8 000 copies of Vulgate.<br /><br />In the order of the versions Latin version usually stands at the beginning in the apparatus.<br /><br />[edit] Coptic Versions<br /><br /> Main article: Coptic versions of the Bible<br /><br />The Coptic language was used in several dialects: Bohairic (northern dialect), Fayyumic, Sahidic (southern dialect), Akhmimic, and others. First translation was made in end of 2d century into Sahidic dialect (copsa). This translation was a representative of Alexandrian text-type.<br /><br />Bofairic translation was made a little later, because Greek language was more influenced in a North, than in a South. Probably it was made in the beginning of 3th century. It was very literally translation, a lot of Greek words, and even some grammar forms (f.e. syntactic construction μεν — δε) were incorporated to this translation. For this reason, bohairic translation is more helpful in reconstruction early Greek text, than any other ancient translation.[9]<br /><br />[edit] Versions in other languages<br /><br />After A.D. 300 were made other translations into Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Gothic, Old Curch Slavonic, and other languages (Arabian, Nubian, Persian, Soghdian). Armenian, Georgian, and Ethiopic are often cited in critical apparatus, but Gothic, and Slavonic are cited very rarely.<br /><br />[edit] Additions<br /><br />Over the years, there have been a number of possible additions to the original text, such as:<br /><br /> * Matt 16:2b-3<br /> * Mark 16:9-20<br /> * Luke 22:19b-20,43-44<br /> * John 5:4<br /> * John 7:53-8:11<br /> * 1 John 5:7b–8a<br /><br />In addition, there are a large number of variant readings, see Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (1994) for details.<br /><br />[edit] Authority<br /><br />All Christian groups respect the New Testament, but they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration, which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of Biblical inerrancy and/or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:<br /><br /> * Infallibility relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in matters of doctrine.<br /> * Inerrancy relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in factual assertions (including historical and scientific assertions).<br /> * Authoritativeness relates to the correctness of the Bible in questions of practice in morality.<br /><br />Christian scholars such as Professor Peter Stoner see the Bible having compelling and detailed fulfilled Bible prophecy and argue for the Bible's inspiration. This is argued to show that the Bible is authoritative, since it is argued that only God knows the future. A common objection in the West regarding this matter is that the burden of proof is on miracles, which, by Occam's Razor, should only be considered when all ordinary explanations fail. C. S. Lewis, Norman Geisler, William Lane Craig, and Christians who engage in Christian apologetics have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible. [6] [7] [8][9][10]PDF (133 KiB) [11]. On the other hand, in the West those who do not believe in miracles often use the arguments of David Hume, Benedict de Spinoza, or the arguments of Deism. [12][13][14].<br /><br />All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether literal history, allegory or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.<br /><br />[edit] Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy<br /><br />For the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, there are two strands of revelation, the Bible, and the (rest of the) Apostolic Tradition. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. In Catholic terminology the Teaching Office is called the Magisterium; in Orthodox terminology the authentic interpretation of scripture and tradition is limited, in the final analysis, to the Canon Law of the Ecumenical councils. Both sources of revelation are considered necessary for proper understanding of the tenets of the faith. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992):<br /><br /> § 83: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.<br /> § 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.<br /><br />[edit] Protestantism<br /><br />Following the doctrine of sola scriptura, Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reevaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in Liberal Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of Scripture vary widely.<br /><br />[edit] American Evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism<br /><br />Certain American conservatives, fundamentalists and evangelicals believe that the Scriptures are both human and divine in origin: human in their manner of composition, but divine in that their source is God, the Holy Spirit, who governed the writers of scripture in such a way that they recorded nothing at all contrary to the truth. Fundamentalists accept the enduring authority and impugnity of a prescientific interpretation of the Bible. In the United States this particularly applies to issues such as the ordination of women, abortion, and homosexuality. However, although American evangelicals are overwhelmingly opposed to such things, other evangelicals are increasingly willing to consider that the views of the biblical authors may have been culturally conditioned, and they may even argue that there is room for change along with cultural norms and scientific advancements. Both fundamentalists and evangelicals profess belief in the inerrancy of the Bible. In the US the fundamentalists' stronger emphasis on literal interpretation has led to the rejection of evolution, which contradicts the doctrine of Creationism.<br /><br />Evangelicals, on the other hand, tend to avoid interpretations of the Bible that would directly contradict generally accepted scientific assertions of fact. They do not impute error to biblical authors, but rather entertain various theories of literary intent which might give credibility to human progress in knowledge of the world, while still accepting the divine inspiration of the scriptures.<br /><br />Within the US, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) is an influential statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God's saving grace in individual lives."<br /><br />Critics of such a position point out that there are many statements that Jesus makes in the Gospels or that Paul makes in his epistles, even to the point of making them commands, which are not taken as commands by most advocates of Biblical inerrancy. Examples of this are Jesus' command to the disciples to sell all they have and give the money to the poor so as to gain treasure in the Kingdom of Heaven (Mark 10:21), or Paul's calls to imitate him in celibacy (1 Cor 7:8). Other sections of the Bible, such as the second half of John chapter six, where Jesus commands that the disciples eat his flesh and drink his blood, are interpreted by most adherents of Biblical Inerrancy as symbolic language rather than literally, as might be expected from the statements of the doctrine. Supporters of Biblical Inerrancy generally argue that these passages are intended to be symbolic, and that their symbolic nature can be seen directly in the text, thus preserving the doctrine.<br /><br />[edit] American Mainline and liberal Protestantism<br /><br />Mainline American Protestant denominations, including the United Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church USA, The Episcopal Church, and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching—from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the Scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly. For example, ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches, abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person, and homosexuality is increasingly regarded as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.<br /><br />Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail."<br /><br />Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their Evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of Scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for social justice. The message of personal salvation is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament's Golden Rule admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit" of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.<br /><br />There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as Christian anarchists.<br /><br />[edit] Messianic Judaism<br /><br />Messianic Judaism generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants.<br /><br />[edit] See also<br /> Bible portal<br /><br /> * Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible<br /> * Gnosticism and the New Testament<br /> * List of Gospels<br /> * Expounding of the Law<br /> * Bible translations<br /> * Biblical canon<br /> * Books of the Bible<br /> * New Testament apocrypha<br /> * New Testament view on Jesus' life<br /> * Old Testament<br /> * Two-source hypothesis<br /> * Authorship of the Johannine works<br /> * Authorship of the Pauline epistles<br /> * Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture<br /> * Category:New Testament books<br /><br />[edit] Notes<br /><br /> 1. ^ Papias (c. 130) gives the perhaps earliest tradition of Mark's Apostolic connection: "This also the presbyter said: Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's discourses, so that Mark committed no error while he thus wrote some things as he remembered them. For he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of the thing which he had heard, and not to state any of them falsely" (cited by Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, 3.39.21ff.).<br /> 2. ^ Irenaeus wrote about AD 180, "Luke, the attendant of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel which Paul had declared" (cited by Eusebius, Hist. eccl., 5.8.3ff.).<br /> 3. ^ McDonald, Lee M. The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1995. pp.116<br /> 4. ^ Patzia, Arthur. The Making of the New Testament. Downers Grove: IVP, 1995. pp.104<br /> 5. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (March 13, 1997). The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford University Press, p. 246. “"Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree (De Canonicis Scripturis) in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema."” <br /> 6. ^ Palmer, 1881. Edwin Palmer, The Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232<br /> 7. ^ Palmer, 1881. Edwin Palmer, The Greek Testament . London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232<br /> 8. ^ Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1977, pp. 3-98.<br /> 9. ^ Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1977, pp. 99-152.<br /><br />[edit] Further reading<br /><br /> * A.H. McNeile, An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament, second edition revised New Testament Introduction, D. Guthrie, Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester 1976.<br /> * Raymond E. Brown: An Introduction to the New Testament (ISBN 0-385-24767-2)<br /> * Burton L. Mack: Who Wrote the New Testament?, Harper, 1996<br /> * Detlev Dormeyer: The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity (English translation), Sheffield 1998<br /> * Randel McCraw Helms: Who Wrote the Gospels?<br /> * H.C. Thiessen, Introduction to the New Testament, Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids 1976.<br /> * Theodor Zahn, Introduction to the New Testament, English translation, Edinburgh, 1910.<br /> * Interpreting the New Testament. An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of N.T. Exegesis, H. Conzelmann and A. Lindemann, translated by S.S. Schatzmann, Hendrickson Publishers. Peabody 1988.<br /><br />[edit] External links<br /> The external links in this article may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines.<br />Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links. (July 2007)<br /><br />[edit] Source text of New Testament<br /><br /> * The New Testament Gateway - Dr. Mark Goodacre.<br /> * Latin harmony of the Four Gospels: «Live» of Jesus (1)<br /> * Latin harmony of the Four Gospels: «Live» of Jesus (2)<br /> * N.T. Ancient Manuscripts: Partial New Testament Papyri<br /> * New Testament - King James Version with Greek and Encyclopedic links<br /> * Vatican Resource Library - Vatican Library Archives<br /> * Complete Text of the New Testament, 1611 King James Version<br /> * Tessarôn Euaggeliôn Sumphônia - The Greek harmony of the Gospels<br /> * Searchable New Testament Greek Lexicon<br /><br />[edit] Greek<br />Wikisource<br />Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article:<br />New Testament<br /><br /> * New Testament Byzantine Greek Original Side by side with the English (King James) and Russian (Synodal) translation - Commentary by the Greek Fathers - Icons from Athos Holy Mountain<br /> * New Testament, Greek Polytonic Text according to Ecumenical Patriarchate<br /> * Greek New Testament text (searchable only; no downloads) with lexical aids<br /> * Greek New Testament This is a Greek text of the New Testament, specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants]<br /> * Greek-English interlinear of the Old & New Testaments - in PDF format.<br /> * Palmer, Edwin Palmer, ΚΑΙΝΗ ΔΙΑΘΗΚΗ. The Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. ISBN 1843560232<br /><br />[edit] Other languages<br /><br /> * Lutheran Church China: - Has the only Traditional Chinese New Testament (1880 A.D.) based on the King James Version.<br /> * Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions at GospelCom.net<br /> * Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions at Biola University<br /> * Online Bible at GospelHall.org - King James Version, English Standard Version, Bible in Basic English, Darby Translation<br /> * King James version of New Testament at Project Gutenberg<br /> * Full text of the New Testament in English, Arabic, Amharic, Hebrew and French<br /> * Serbian New Testament — full text<br /> * The New Testament at romansonline.com<br /> * The Complete Sayings of Christ The complete collection of Christ's sayings from the New Testament --- in parallel English and Latin.<br /> * Online New Testament in Turkish.<br /> * Holybible providing full text Bibles in Korean, Chinese, English, and Azerbaycan.<br /><br />[edit] General references<br /><br /> * New Testament Gateway, sponsored by Duke University<br /> * New Testament Books<br /> * Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy<br /> * Overview of Inerrancy<br /> * Catechism of the Catholic Church<br /> * Ask the Pastor - a Lutheran discussion of the dates of writing, compiling, and setting of the canon<br /> * New Testament Alterations from the Order of Nazorean Essenes (Budhist / Gnostic Chritian source)<br /> * Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament<br /> * Catholic Encyclopedia: New Testament<br /> * Evangelical Textual Criticism Blog<br /> * Dating the NT - list of opinions of scholars<br /> * Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library<br /><br />[edit] Development and authorship<br /><br /> * http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_ntb1.htm<br /> * http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Trowbridge/NT_Hist.htm<br /> * Synoptic Problem Home Page<br /><br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />Books of the Bible<br />Major Divisions <br />Old Testament<br />(Protocanon)<br /> <br />Genesis • Exodus • Leviticus • Numbers • Deuteronomy • Joshua • Judges • Ruth • 1-2 Samuel • 1-2 Kings • 1-2 Chronicles • Ezra • Nehemiah • Esther • Job • Psalms • Proverbs • Ecclesiastes • Song • Isaiah • Jeremiah • Lamentations • Ezekiel • Daniel • Hosea • Joel • Amos • Obadiah • Jonah • Micah • Nahum • Habakkuk • Zephaniah • Haggai • Zechariah • Malachi<br />Deuterocanon<br />& Apocrypha<br /> <br />Catholic & Orthodox: Baruch & Letter of Jeremiah • Additions to Daniel (Susanna, Song of the Three Children, Bel & the Dragon) • 1 Esdras • 2 Esdras • Additions to Esther • Judith • 1 Maccabees • 2 Maccabees • Sirach • Tobit • Wisdom • Orthodox: 3 Maccabees • 4 Maccabees • Odes • Prayer of Manasseh • Psalm 151 • Syriac Peshitta only: 2 Baruch • Psalms 152–155 • Ethiopian Orthodox only: 4 Baruch • Enoch • Jubilees • 1-3 Meqabyan<br />New Testament<br /> <br />Matthew • Mark • Luke • John • Acts • Romans • 1 Corinthians • 2 Corinthians • Galatians • Ephesians • Philippians • Colossians • 1 Thessalonians • 2 Thessalonians • 1 Timothy • 2 Timothy • Titus • Philemon • Hebrews • James • 1 Peter • 2 Peter • 1 John • 2 John • 3 John • Jude • Revelation<br />Canon <br />Development: Old Testament • New Testament • Christian Canon<br />Others: Deuterocanon • Apocrypha: Biblical • New Testament<br />More divisions <br />Chapters and verses • Pentateuch • History • Wisdom • Major & Minor prophets • Gospels (synoptic) • Epistles (Pauline, pastoral, general) • Apocalyptic literature<br />Translations <br />Vulgate • Luther • Wyclif • Tyndale • KJV • Modern English Bibles • Debate • Dynamic v. Formal • JPS • RSV • NASB • Amp • NAB • NEB • TLB • GNB • NIV • NJB • NRSV • REB • NLT • ESV • Msg<br />Manuscripts <br />Septuagint • Samaritan Pentateuch • Dead Sea scrolls • Targum • Diatessaron • Muratorian fragment • Peshitta • Vetus Latina • Masoretic Text • New Testament manuscripts<br />See also <br />Authorship • Esdras • Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible • Studies • Synod of Hippo • Textual criticism<br />Category • Portal • WikiProject<br />[show]<br />v • d • e<br />New Testament People<br />Gospels: Jesus Christ, views: Christian, Historical, New Testament<br />Alphaeus • Anna • Annas • Barabbas • Bartimaeus • blind man, Bethsaida • Caiaphas • Cleopas • Devil • Dismas • Elizabeth • Gabriel • Gestas • Jairus' Daughter • Joachim • Joanna • John the Baptist • Joseph • Joseph of Arimathea • Joses • Lazarus • Legion • Longinus • Luke • Malchus • Mark • Martha • Mary Magdalene • Mary mother of James • Mary mother of Jesus • Mary of Bethany • Mary of Clopas • Widow's son of Nain • Nathanael • Nicodemus ben Gurion • Salome • Simeon • Simon of Cyrene • Simon the Leper • Susanna • Theophilus • Zacchaeus • Zechariah<br />Groups: Angels • Disciples • Evangelists • Godfearers • Herodians • Magi • Myrrhbearers • Pharisees • Proselytes • Sadducees • Samaritans • Sanhedrin • 70 Disciples • Scribes • Zealots<br />Apostles<br />Andrew • Bartholomew • James of Alphaeus • James of Zebedee • John (Beloved, Evangelist, Patmos) • Judas Iscariot • Jude Thaddeus • Matthew • Matthias • Paul • Peter • Philip • Simon the Zealot, (Judas) • Thomas<br />Acts: Peter • Paul<br />Agabus • Ananias (Judaea) • Ananias (Damascus) • Apollos • Aquila • Aristarchus • Bar-jesus • Barnabas • Cornelius • Demetrius • Dionysius • Dorcas • Eutychus • Gamaliel • James the Just • Jason • Joseph Barsabas, • Judas of Galilee • Lucius • Luke • Lydia • Manahen • (John) Mark • Mary mother of J. Mark • Nicholas • Paul • Philip • Priscilla • Publius • Sapphira • Sceva • Seven Deacons • Silas/Silvanus • Simeon of Jerusalem • Simon the Sorcerer • Sopater • Stephen • Theudas • Timothy • Titus • Trophimus • Tychicus<br />Roman Officials<br />Gospels: Aretas IV • Cornelius • Herod Antipas • Herod Archelaus • Herod Philip II • Herod the Great • Longinus • Lysanias • Pontius Pilate • Pilate's Wife • Quirinius • Salome • Tiberius<br />Acts: Agrippa I • Agrippa II • Felix • Claudius Lysias • Junius A. Gallio • Festus • Sergius Paulus<br />Epistles<br />Achaichus • Alexander • Archippus • Crescens • Diotrephes • Epaphroditus • Erastus • Hymenaeus • Jesus Justus • Junia • Mary • Angel Michael • Nymphas • Philemon • Philetus • Phoebe • Syntyche<br />Revelation: Antipas • Four Horsemen • Apollyon • Two Witnesses • Woman • Beast • Three Angels • Whore of Babylon<br />Full List • Jesus: (Ministry, Miracles, Parables, Timeline, Titles) • Paul • New Testament • NT Canon • Gospels (Synoptic) • Epistles (Pauline, General) • Apostolic Age • Early Christianity<br />[hide]<br />v • d • e<br />Christianity topics<br />Jesus Christ <br />Virgin birth • Incarnation • Ministry • Miracles • Crucifixion • Resurrection • Second Coming • Chronology<br /> <br />Foundations <br />Creeds • Christian Church • Gospel • Kingdom of God • New Covenant • Timeline • Twelve Apostles<br />Bible <br />Books • Canon • Old Testament • New Testament • Apocrypha<br />Theology <br />Trinity: (God: Father, Son, & Holy Spirit) • Atonement • History Of • Apologetics<br />History & Denominations <br />Early Christianity • Ecumenical councils • Eastern • Western • Reformation • Evangelicalism • Fundamentalism • Liberalism • Messianic • Restorationism • Nontrinitarianism<br />Miscellaneous Topics <br />Worship • Art • Criticism • Denominations • Ecumenism • Liturgy (Liturgical year) • Missions • Movements • Music • Prayer • Symbolism<br />Comparisons <br />Other Religions • Buddhism • Islam • Judaism • Paganism • Mormonism • Astrology<br />Holy Spirit<br />From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />Jump to: navigation, search<br />The Descent of the Holy Spirit in a 15th century illuminated manuscript. Musée Condé, Chantilly. The Holy Spirit is depicted as a dove in the topmost area of painting.<br />The Descent of the Holy Spirit in a 15th century illuminated manuscript. Musée Condé, Chantilly. The Holy Spirit is depicted as a dove in the topmost area of painting.<br /><br />In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance of God; that is, the Spirit is considered to act in concert with and share an essential nature with God the Father and God the Son (Jesus Christ). The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or pneumatology, was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed. For this reason, there is greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son (Christology) and of the Father. Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as the "Third Person" of the Triune God - with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person. There are also distinct understandings of the Holy Spirit by non-Trinitarian groups and some non-Christian groups who use the term as well.<br />Contents<br />[hide]<br /><br /> * 1 Doctrine<br /> o 1.1 New Testament background<br /> o 1.2 Mainstream Christianity<br /> * 2 Particular Christian views<br /> o 2.1 Roman Catholicism<br /> o 2.2 Pentecostalism<br /> o 2.3 Orthodoxy<br /> o 2.4 Dispensationalism<br /> o 2.5 The Churches of God Movement<br /> o 2.6 Third Wave<br /> o 2.7 Branch Davidian, Some Messianics, and others<br /> * 3 "Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"<br /> * 4 Gifts and fruits<br /> o 4.1 Fruit of the Spirit<br /> o 4.2 Gifts and filling of the Spirit<br /> * 5 Depiction in art<br /> * 6 Non-Trinitarian Christian views<br /> o 6.1 Latter-day Saint views<br /> o 6.2 Jehovah's Witness views<br /> o 6.3 Oneness Pentecostalism<br /> o 6.4 Unity Church views<br /> o 6.5 Roman Catholic views on Unitarianism<br /> * 7 Non-Christian views<br /> o 7.1 Bahá'í Faith<br /> o 7.2 Islam<br /> o 7.3 Judaism<br /> o 7.4 Mandaeanism<br /> o 7.5 Rastafarian view<br /> o 7.6 Sant Mat<br /> * 8 See also<br /> * 9 References<br /> * 10 External links<br /><br />[edit] Doctrine<br /><br />[edit] New Testament background<br />[hide]<br /><br />Part of a series of articles on<br />Christianity<br /><br /><br /> <br />Jesus Christ<br />Virgin birth • Crucifixion • Resurrection<br />Foundations<br />Church • New Covenant<br />Apostles • Kingdom • Gospel • Timeline<br />Bible<br />Old Testament • New Testament<br />Books • Canon • Apocrypha<br />Christian theology<br />Trinity • (Father • Son • Holy Spirit)<br />History of • Theology • Apologetics<br />History and traditions<br />Early • Councils • Creeds • Missions<br />East-West Schism • Crusades • Reformation<br />Denominations<br />[show]Catholicism<br />Anglican • Eastern Catholic • Independent Catholic • Old Catholic • Roman Catholic<br />[show]Protestantism<br />Lutheran • Reformed • Anabaptist • Baptist • Methodist • Adventist • Evangelicalism • Holiness • Pentecostal<br />[show]Orthodoxy<br /><br />Eastern Orthodoxy • Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysite) • Syriac Christianity (inc. Nestorian Assyrians)<br />[show]Nontrinitarian<br /><br />Jehovah's Witnesses • Latter Day Saint movement • Unitarianism • Christadelphians • Oneness Pentecostalism<br />Topics in Christianity<br />Preaching • Prayer • Ecumenism<br />Relation to other religions • Movements<br />Music • Liturgy • Calendar<br />Symbols • Art • Criticism<br />Christianity Portal<br />This box: view • talk • edit<br /><br />It is held in common Christian belief that the Holy Spirit has been with this world from the beginning of creation. This view is taken from Genesis 1, where it is written that "the spirit of God was floating over the waters [of creation]" - indicating the Holy Spirit; and from 1 Samuel 11:6, where it is written that "the Spirit of God came upon Saul when he heard those tidings, and his anger was kindled greatly."<br /><br />The first overt appearance of the Holy Spirit in Christian theology is in the words of Jesus, speaking to his disciples (John 14:15-18) shortly before his death. He characterizes the Holy Spirit to them as the 'Spirit of Truth'. Chronologically though, the Holy Spirit makes a first appearance at the beginning of Jesus' ministry when he is baptized in the Jordan River by John the Baptist (Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-22, John 1:31-33). In these accounts, the incorporeal Holy Spirit is described as descending upon Jesus 'like' or 'as' a dove.<br /><br />In John's Gospel, emphasis is placed not upon what the Holy Spirit did for Jesus, but upon Jesus giving the Spirit to his disciples. This "Higher" Christology sees Jesus as a sacrificial lamb, and as coming among mankind in order to grant the Spirit of God to humanity.<br /><br />Although the language used to describe Jesus' receiving the Spirit in John's Gospel is parallel to the accounts in the other three Gospels, John relates this with the aim of showing that Jesus is specially in possession of the Spirit for the purpose of granting the Spirit to his followers, uniting them with himself, and in himself also uniting them with the Father. (See Raymond Brown, "The Gospel According to John", chapter on Pneumatology). In John, the gift of the Spirit is equivalent to eternal life, knowledge of God, power to obey, and communion with one another and with the Father.<br /><br />[edit] Mainstream Christianity<br /><br />Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to lead a Christian life. The Holy Spirit dwells inside every Christian, each one's body being his temple (1 Corinthians 3:16). The Holy Spirit is depicted as a 'Counselor' or 'Helper' (paracletus in Latin, derived from Greek), guiding people in the way of the truth. The Holy Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the Fruit of the Holy Spirit. A list of "spiritual gifts" that may be bestowed include the charismatic gifts of prophecy, tongues, healing, and knowledge. Christians holding a view known as cessationism believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain spiritual gifts are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy (see, e.g. Romans 12:6-8). The experience of the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as being anointed.<br /><br />Jesus describes the Holy Spirit as the promised "Advocate" (i.e. "strengthener", "fortifier") in John 14:26. After his resurrection, Christ told his disciples that they would be "baptized with the Holy Spirit", and would receive power from this event (Acts 1:4-8), a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first Pentecost, Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native language.<br /><br />The Holy Spirit's existence is affirmed in the Apostles Creed and responsibility for the Virgin Birth of Jesus is asserted. In the Nicene Creed (an extensive elaboration of the Apostles Creed), the Holy Spirit is further affirmed to proceed from either one or both of the other members of the Trinity (God the Father and God the Son) (see filioque controversy). This is taken to further imply that the Holy Spirit is consubstantial and co-eternal with the Father and the Son. The Holy Spirit is also asserted to be the "Lord and Giver of Life".<br /><br />[edit] Particular Christian views<br /><br />[edit] Roman Catholicism<br />Depiction of Trinity from Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.<br />Depiction of Trinity from Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.<br /><br />The Catechism of the Catholic Church states the following in the first paragraph dealing with the Apostles Creed's article I believe in the Holy Spirit. "No one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God." Now God's Spirit, who reveals God, makes known to us Christ, his Word, his living Utterance, but the Spirit does not speak of himself. The Spirit who "has spoken through the prophets" makes us hear the Father's Word, but we do not hear the Spirit himself. We know him only in the movement by which he reveals the Word to us and disposes us to welcome him in faith. The Spirit of truth who "unveils" Christ to us "will not speak on his own." Such properly divine self-effacement explains why "the world cannot receive [him], because it neither sees him nor knows him", while those who believe in Christ know the Spirit because he dwells with them."<br /><br />As regards the Holy Spirit's relationship with the Church, the Catechism states: "The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit...Thus the Church's mission is not an addition to that of Christ and the Holy Spirit, but is its sacrament: in her whole being and in all her members, the Church is sent to announce, bear witness, make present, and spread the mystery of the communion of the Holy Trinity...Because the Holy Spirit is the anointing of Christ, it is Christ who, as the head of the Body, pours out the Spirit among his members to nourish, heal, and organize them in their mutual functions, to give them life, send them to bear witness, and associate them to his self-offering to the Father and to his intercession for the whole world. Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body."<br /><br />The Catechism also lists the various symbols of the Holy Spirit in the Bible:<br /><br /> * Water - signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism. As "by one Spirit we were all baptized", so we are also "made to drink of one Spirit." (1 Corinthians 12:13) Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified (John 19:34; 1 John 5:8) as its source and welling up in us to eternal life. (Cf. John 4:10-14; John 7:38; Exodus 17:1-6; Isaiah 55:1; Zechariah 14:8; 1 Corinthians 10:4; Revelation 21:6; 22:17)<br /><br /> * Anointing - The symbolism of anointing with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. (Cf. 1 John 2:20,27; 2 Corinthians 1:21) In Christian initiation, anointing is the sacramental sign of Confirmation, called "chrismation" in the Churches of the East. Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. Christ (in Hebrew "messiah") means the one "anointed" by God's Spirit.<br /><br /> * Fire - symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues "as of fire", the Holy Spirit rests on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost and fills them with himself.<br /><br /> * Cloud and light - The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and "overshadows" her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of Transfiguration, the Spirit in the "cloud came and overshadowed" Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and "a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'" (Luke 9:34-35)<br /><br /> * The seal is a symbol close to that of anointing. "The Father has set his seal" on Christ and also seals us in him. (John 6:27; cf. 2 Corinthians 1:22; Ephesians 1:13; Ephesians 4:3) Because this seal indicates the indelible effect of the anointing with the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders, the image of the seal (sphragis) has been used in some theological traditions to express the indelible "character" imprinted by these three unrepeatable sacraments.<br /><br /> * The hand. It is by the Apostles' imposition of hands that the Holy Spirit is given. The Letter to the Hebrews lists the imposition of hands among the "fundamental elements" of its teaching. The Church has kept this sign of the all-powerful outpouring of the Holy Spirit in its sacramental epicleses. The Sovereign God is omnipotent, all-powerful, invincible, unstoppable, and supreme. <br /><br /><br /> * The finger. "It is by the finger of God that [Jesus] cast out demons." If God's law was written on tablets of stone "by the finger of God", then the "letter from Christ" entrusted to the care of the apostles, is written "with the Spirit of the living God, not on tablets of stone, but on tablets of human hearts." (Exodus 31:18; 2 Corinthians 3:3)<br /><br /> * The dove. When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him. (Matthew 3:16)<br /><br />[edit] Pentecostalism<br /><br />The Christian movement called Pentecostalism derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem. They also believe that, once received, the Holy Spirit is God working through the recipient to perform the gifts of the Spirit. These gifts are portrayed in 1 Corinthians chapter 12.<br /><br />The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Much of Pentecostalism holds that the 'Baptism with the Holy Spirit' is distinct from the salvific born again experience, as a usually distinct experience in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way, with the result that the Christian can now be more readily used to do signs, miracles, and wonders for the sake of evangelism or for ministry within the church. There are also many Pentecostals who believe that Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation, not a "second blessing". For a more detailed discussion, see Pentecostalism.<br /><br />Many Pentecostals also believe that the normative initial evidence of this infilling (baptism) of the Holy Spirit is the ability to speak in other tongues (glossolalia).<br /><br />[edit] Orthodoxy<br /><br />Eastern Orthodoxy proclaims that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from whom is begotten the Son eternally and also from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Note that unlike the Catholic Church and western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the Filioque ("and the Son") in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is believed to eternally proceed from the Father, not from the Father and the Son. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith (Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed). Oriental Orthodox also coincide with Eastern Orthodox usage and teachings on the matter.<br /><br />[edit] Dispensationalism<br /><br />According to dispensationalism, we are now living in the Age of the Spirit, or church age (however some like Harold Camping say the church age has ended and we are in the tribulation period). The Old Testament period, under this view, may be called the Age of the Father, or of the (Mosaic) law; the period covered by the Gospels, the Age of the Son; from Pentecost until the second advent of Christ, the Age of the Spirit, or the church age (see also Joachim of Fiore).<br /><br />The Mosaic Law was still in effect up to the time when Jesus Christ (the second person of the Trinity) died on a Roman cross, was buried and rose from the dead (1 Corinthians 15:1-5). The church age was fully established at Pentecost where the disciples' were given the Holy Spirit, and sent out by him to plant his church in the world.<br /><br />A controversial view holds that at the time of the Rapture, the Holy Spirit will depart the Earth, although it is seldom mentioned today. However, the Rapture is another disputed point of Christianity. 2 Thessalonians 2:7.<br /><br />The church age is said to close with the second coming of Christ.<br /><br />[edit] The Churches of God Movement<br /><br />In the Scripture, the word most frequently used for "spirit" is ruwakh (רוח) meaning "breath, wind, spirit" in Hebrew. In the Greek Scriptures, the word is pneuma, having a similar meaning. The Churches of God (Anderson, IN)[1] believe that the Holy Spirit is one of the three persons within the Holy Trinity. As the promised comforter (John 16:7),[2] the Holy Spirit comes into the life not only as a gift but an experience. Through the infilling and work of the Holy Spirit a Christian grows in their relationship with God and there is an instilling of wisdom, understanding, and an increasing of faith and strength. The Holy Spirit is offered generously through God's love, but given only to those that seek him.<br /><br />[edit] Third Wave<br /><br />The expression Third Wave was coined by Christian theologian C. Peter Wagner around 1980 to describe what followers believe to be the recent historical work of the Holy Spirit. It is part of a larger movement known as the Neocharismatic movement. The Third Wave involves those Christians who have allegedly received Pentecostal-like experiences, however Third Wavers claim no association with either the Pentecostal or Charismatic movements.<br /><br />[edit] Branch Davidian, Some Messianics, and others<br /><br />There are numerous Christian groups who base their thinking in regards to the gender of the Holy Spirit on the fact that the Hebrew word for Spirit, Ruach, is feminine. They give no weight to the facts that the Greek word for Spirit (Pneuma) is neuter, and the Latin one is masculine, because the Logos ("oracles" - words) of God were are said to be given unto the Jews (Rom. 3:1, 2).<br /><br />Foremost among these groups, and the most vocal on the subject are the Branch Davidian. In 1977, one of their leaders, Lois Roden, began to formally teach that the feminine Holy Spirit is the heavenly pattern of women. In her many studies and talks she cited numerous scholars and researchers from Jewish, Christian, and other sources.<br /><br />They see in the creation of Adam and Eve a literal image and likeness of the invisible Godhead, Male and Female, who is "clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made" (Rom. 1:20). They take the oneness of God to mean the "familial" unity which exists between them, which unity is not seen in any other depiction of the Godhead by the various non-Hebrew peoples.<br /><br />Thus, having a father and mother in heaven, they see that the Bible shows that those parents had a son born unto them before the creation of the world, by whom all things were created. The final element in their belief that mankind is literally made in the image and likeness of Gods is that of a divine daughter, a feminine counterpart of the son. They say that the concept has it roots in the Bible and Jewish concept of The Matronit. They see that the King James translators understood the concept of Christ having his own spirit (feminine counterpart), by using the terms "Holy Spirit" (Mother - Spirit of God), and "Holy Ghost" (Daughter - Spirit of Christ). Here are some example of Branch Davidian teachings on the Subject.[3][4][5][6]<br /><br />These concepts are also taught among other groups, to one degree or another.<br /><br />There are some other independent Messianic groups with similar teachings. Some examples include Joy In the World[1]; The Torah and Testimony Revealed [2].<br /><br />There are also some scholars associated with more "mainstream" denominations, who while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead. For example, R.P. Nettlehorst, professor at the Quartz Hill School of Theology (associated with the Southern Baptist Convention) has written on the subject.[3][4][5] Evan Randolph, associated with the Episcopal Church, has likewise written on the subject.[6][7]<br /><br />Here are some historical examples:[7][8]<br /><br />[edit] "Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"<br /><br />Holy Ghost was the common name for the Holy Spirit in English prior to the 20th century. It is the name used in the Book of Common Prayer and the King James Version of the Bible, and is still used by those who prefer more traditional language, or whose religious vocabulary is largely derived from the King James Version. The term is still retained in the traditional-language rites of the Anglican Church. The original meaning of the English word ghost paralleled the words spirit or soul; only later did the former word come to acquire the specific sense of "disembodied spirit of the dead" and the associated pejorative connotations.<br /><br />In 1901 the American Standard Version of the Bible translated the name as Holy Spirit, as had the English Revised Version of 1881-1885 upon which it was based. Almost all modern English translations have followed suit. Some languages still use a word that overlaps both English words, such as the German Geist.<br /><br />In Norfolk, a county in the United Kingdom, Religious Education teachers are told to avoid using "Holy Ghost" as it allegedly "suggests a trivial and spooky element to the third part in the Trinity".[9]<br /><br />[edit] Gifts and fruits<br /> This article does not cite any references or sources.<br />Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008)<br /><br />[edit] Fruit of the Spirit<br /><br /> Main article: Fruit of the Holy Spirit<br /><br />Christians believe the "Fruit of the Spirit" are virtues engendered in an individual by the acceptance of the Spirit and his actions in one's life. They can be found in the New Testament (Galatians 5:22-23): "But the fruit of the Spirit is love (Gk: agape), joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, [and] self-control." The Tradition of the Roman Catholic Church, (Catechism of the Catholic Church, Section 1832), lists 12 segments making up the Fruit of the Holy Spirit: "charity, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, generosity, gentleness, faithfulness, modesty, self-control, [and] chastity." Many Christians believe that the fruit of the Holy Spirit are enhanced over time by exposure to the written word of God and by the experience of leading a Christian life. They further believe that the Fruit of the Holy Spirit are products of the Gifts of the Holy Spirit: "wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord."<br /><br />[edit] Gifts and filling of the Spirit<br /><br /> Main article: Spiritual gift<br /><br />Some Christians claim that when they align themselves with God through Jesus Christ that the Holy Spirit dwells inside of them. Some consider conversion to be the point of filling, others hold to a "later filling", "second work of grace", or "baptism of the Spirit" when a believer begins manifesting various gifts and abilities.<br /><br />The Holy Spirit empowers the believer for ministry in the church and world and allows him/her to commune with the Creator.<br /><br />The Sevenfold or Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism (accordant to Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, died 397) are the: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of Holy Fear; (from De Sacramentis 3.8). Ambrose believed that all of these were poured out on the believer at baptism.<br /><br />Another understanding of Gifts of the Spirit holds that different gifts are given to different people, perhaps even at different times, according to the needs of the church, to carry out God's work on earth. Saint Paul believed that all Christians should work together, each with different functions like the parts of a human body. See 1 Corinthians 12.<br /><br />From this perspective, the Holy Spirit can manifest gifts of many kinds, giving:<br /><br /> * Wisdom;<br /> * Eyes illuminated to the Word of God;<br /> * Knowledge revealed to them;<br /> * Supernatural faith;<br /> * Power to Perform Miracles;<br /> * Ability to Heal or Experience Healing;<br /><br />or causing the believer to:<br /><br /> * Feel the presence of God;<br /> * Feel powerful sensations through the body;<br /> * Overwhelming sense of joy;<br /> * Be made an "apostle" (sent one, missionary);<br /> * Be called as a Pastor/Holy person;<br /> * Have the ability to teach from the Word of God;<br /> * Be able to lead and administer;<br /> * Have a knack for seeing needs and extending mercy;<br /> * Give;<br /> * Use one's life to help others;<br /> * Consistently open one's home in hospitality;<br /> * Love and forgive supernaturally;<br /> * Evangelize (speak/spread forth the Good News);<br /> * Engage in Glossolalia, commonly called "speaking in tongues";<br /> * Engage in Xenoglossy or Religious Xenoglossia, speaking in an unlearned language;<br /> * Raise the dead;<br /> * Interpret different tongues;<br /> * Hear God speak;<br /> * Exorcise Evil Spirits that possess a person;<br /> * Have a strong, personal connection to God;<br /> * Be able to prophesy;<br /> * Have visions;<br /> * Discern spiritual, physical and mental conditions;<br /> * See angels and demons at work.<br /><br />There are four listings of gifts of the Spirit. Isaiah 11:2-3, 1 Corinthians 12:8-10, Ephesians 4:11-12, and Romans 12:6-8. In each of these references it is made clear that these gifts are for the building up of the Body of Christ, or the Church. St. Paul is aware of spiritual power that manifests itself in at least these ways and teaches the church of their presence, role and importance. These are to be distinguished from talents which all people enjoy because they are created in the image of God. Spiritual gifts provide the power and abilities needed to do the work of Christ in the world.<br /><br />Some Christians, especially of Eastern Orthodoxy, believe that early fathers were especially guided by the Holy Spirit, making their writings almost as canonical as the Testaments.<br /><br />Numerous other supernatural happenings have been linked to the Holy Spirit, and it is often claimed that the power of the Holy Spirit is manifested more in some than it is in others depending on the individual's openness to God using them and the Spirit's sovereign will.<br /><br />Life in the Spirit<br /><br />The following is an example of what is generally held by evangelical Christians.<br /><br />Life in the Spirit is spoken of in many places within the Bible. We note this fact from many theological scholars, including Dr. Gilbert Stafford in his book Theology for Disciples, "The church was empowered both to increase numerically and to live a quality of life." We should be able to recognize the work of the Holy Spirit in the lives of all Christians. This can be seen as three separate movements, the conviction of sin, the holiness of character, and for power in service.<br /><br />The Conviction of Sin This is an on going ministry and work of the Holy Spirit. It was first spoken of by Jesus as recorded in John 16:8.[10] The purpose of this conviction is for Christians to live set apart lives to honor God. It is through the conviction of sin that the Holy Spirit leads into a life that can be described as having a holiness of character.<br /><br />With the infusion of the Holy Spirit into the lives of Christians so that they can live with a holiness of character. Holiness, and the Holiness movement, at times has been looked upon as legalism, and sometimes went that path. Yet the call to holiness of character should not be perverted by history. One who follows Jesus and is indwelled by the Spirit and submitting to that Spirit will live a life that has the fruit of the Spirit coming out of it, but this is not only for our own benefit, it is to serve God, and others.<br /><br />Finally, we realize the movement of the Holy Spirit giving Christians power for service. This is for serving the Kingdom of God. This is where the gifts of the Spirit come in. The purpose of service within the Kingdom of God is to glorify God, and to extend the purposes and ministry of the kingdom, as stated in Acts 1:8.[11]<br /><br />[edit] Depiction in art<br /><br /> See also: Language of the birds<br /><br />The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, representing the Seven Gifts, as the Archangel Gabriel's announces Christ's coming to Mary. A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint Gregory the Great - as recorded by his secretary - or other Church Father authors, dictating their works to them.<br /><br />The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and Rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the presence of God.<br /><br />The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.<br /><br />There are also some artworks that have depicted the Holy Spirit in a feminine sense as seen in the Sistine Chapel.[12][verification needed]<br /><br />[edit] Non-Trinitarian Christian views<br /><br />In the belief of many nontrinitarian religions — Christadelphians, Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses, for instance — the Holy Spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not an actual person. These beliefs may be drawn from passages such Luke 1:35: "The angel answered, 'The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you. So the holy one to be born will be called the Son of God.'" Here the phrase Holy Spirit is taken by non-trinitarians to be Synonymous parallelism with the power of the Most High. Thus their claim that Holy Spirit is considered to be God's power, not a person. However, Trinitarians take this very phrase to indicate a distinct entity, separate from God the Father, being that this usage is no different from a phrase such as "The Ambassador will present himself to the President, and represent to her the Graces of the Emperor " does not mean that the Ambassador is not a distinct entity from that of the Emperor (which is the view of the non trinitarians). <br /><br />Some Christadelphians believe that one way God uses his Holy Spirit is in the form of his angels.[13] They also believe that sometimes the phrase Holy Spirit refers to God's character/mind, depending on the context that the phrase is in.[13]<br /><br />[edit] Latter-day Saint views<br /><br />The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the name "Holy Spirit" has many references, depending on its usage and the context in which it appears. The term "Holy Spirit" can denote the Holy Ghost; Spirit; the Spirit of God; Spirit of the Lord; Spirit of Christ (or Light of Christ) or even Spirit of Truth. Latter-day Saints teach that these terms are distinct from one another, showing the many aspects and/or functions of God. For example, the Spirit of God has been used as a synonym for the "Holy Ghost", which is a usage that denotes the nature of the Holy Ghost, a distinct personage of the Spirit and an actual distinct and separate person of the Godhead. Spirit of God has also been used to denote a force or power which is impersonal and fills the immensity of space. This latter use is not the Holy Ghost, but denotes a "non-personage", as the Power of God or the Light of God that emanates everywhere.<br /><br />Examples of these distinctions are shown within the Bible (King James Version) verses as:<br /><br /> * Holy Spirit - Psalm 51:11; Luke 11:13; Ephesians 1:13<br /> * Spirit - Romans 8:16<br /> * Spirit of God - Genesis 1:2; Exodus 31:1; 1 Samuel 11:6; Romans 15:19<br /> * Spirit of the Lord - Judges 3:10; Isaiah 11:2; Acts 8:39<br /> * Spirit of Christ - Romans 8:9 (notice here how the word "Spirit" is linked to "Spirit of God" and the "Spirit of Christ"); 1 Peter 1:11<br /> * Light of Christ - 2 Corinthians 4:4; Ephesians 5:14; 1 John 1:7<br /> * Spirit of Truth - John 14:17; John 16:13; 1 John 4:6<br /><br />There are many other such references within the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price.<br /><br />In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Holy Ghost is considered a third and individual member of the Godhead; by virtue of their holy nature and the everlasting covenant existent between them, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit operate as 'One God' (united in the attributes of perfection and pursuit of a common, divine goal). The Holy Spirit exists as a distinct and separate being from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit with no flesh and bones, whereas the Father and the Son are said to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone. Though The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is technically "Non-Trinitarian", their belief in the Godhead is often misinterpreted as an endorsement of Trinitarianism.<br /><br />[edit] Jehovah's Witness views<br /><br />Jehovah's Witnesses point out[14] that personification in the Bible occurs often, including terms such as wisdom, sin and death, water and blood, and does not indicate that the subject is a person. The fact that the Holy Spirit is referred to impersonally several times is used to assert that references of this manner would not occur in such frequency if this was a divine member of God, just as it does not occur with the Father or the Son. Additionally, at Jesus' baptism in Matthew 3:16, Jesus received God's spirit at that time, which Witnesses say conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Jesus relates in Mark 13:32 "But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." The Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing from this statement, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in Acts 7:55, 56 where he sees only the Son and God in heaven.<br /><br />Also noted, in regards to the mentions of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit together (as in 2 Corinthians 13:14; 1 Corinthians 12:4-6; Matthew 28:19), nontrinitarians bring out that none of these verses offer any evidence of the equality of nature or authority among them, just as the numerous simultaneous references to "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob" or "Peter, James and John" do not infer an equality in any manner. Alvan Lamson says in The Church of the First Three Centuries: "The modern popular doctrine of the Trinity . . . derives no support from the language of Justin Martyr: and this observation may be extended to all the ante-Nicene Fathers; that is, to all Christian writers for three centuries after the birth of Christ. It is true, they speak of the Father, Son, and . . . Holy Spirit, but not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One, in any sense now admitted by Trinitarians. The very reverse is the fact." In fairness however, it should be noted that while not explicitly expressing the Trinity in words these very Apocrypha writings from Justin Martyr and many others of ante-Nicene Fathers from A.D. 70 on, do refer to the duality of Jesus and the Father, Jesus being worshiped and referred to as their God.[15]<br /><br />[edit] Oneness Pentecostalism<br /><br />Oneness Pentecostals believe that the Holy Spirit is the Spirit of God himself both in action and in person. They believe the Holy Ghost is not a distinct individual in personage, or in personality apart from or together with God. They believe the Holy Spirit simply is God. They also believe that the Holy Spirit is the life giving power of the body of the man Jesus Christ both before death and after his resurrection, and that in heaven Jesus will be the visible appearance of God on the throne, of whom the church will be his bride. They believe the Spirit of Jesus is the same Spirit that moved over the face of the waters in Genesis 1, spoke to Moses from the burning bush,is the Comforter of John 14, and filled believers in the book of Acts. They believe his human flesh was created by himself and that he choose to dwell with man in this way. They believe that Jesus' body had a spirit until death, just as any live body has a spirit until separated by death, but believe the spirit of Jesus Christ is the Holy Spirit of God and therefore was able to return to and raise his human body from the grave. They believe the Holy Spirit had been manifested many times throughout biblical history as the burning bush, a pillar of fire, a finger writing on a wall, or even as angelic forms that spoke to Abraham, Gideon, and even wrestled with Jacob, but the greatest of all manifestations of the Holy Spirit was in the infant human form that was born of the virgin Mary in the city of Bethlehem. The Bible says he was conceived by the Holy Sprit, and that he would be called Emanuel, meaning God with us. This was the only form that God ever took that was born flesh and blood, and that could legally take away the sins of the whole world in which he loves so dearly. In this manifestation he would have to be tempted in all ways such as us, yet without sin. He was unlimited as God, but chose limit himself to the form and weaknesses of a natural, finite man. He would have to mind and obey his parents, pray to and obey his heavenly Father, live through life's tempations, yet remaining perfect, with out sin. This was only possible by the power of the Holy Spirit living inside his earthly body.<br /><br />[edit] Unity Church views<br /><br />The Unity Church's co-founder Charles Fillmore considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God.<br /><br /> To the Christian metaphysician the Holy Spirit is just what the name implies, the whole Spirit of God in action. In the Hebrew Jehovah is written Yahweh, Yah being masculine and weh feminine.<br /><br /> In the New Testament Christ stands for Jehovah. Jesus talked a great deal about the Holy Spirit: that it would bear witness of him, come with him, and help him to the end of the age.<br /><br /> Do not be misled by the personality of the Holy Spirit and the reference to it as "he." This was the bias of the Oriental mind, making God and all forms of the Deity masculine.<br /><br /> Holy Spirit is the love of Jehovah taking care of the human family, and love is always feminine. Love is the great harmonizer and healer, and whoever calls upon God as Holy Spirit for healing is calling upon the divine love. Jesus Christ Heals, pp. 182-183<br /><br />[edit] Roman Catholic views on Unitarianism<br /><br />There are many Roman Catholic writings that attempt to explain how the Holy Spirit, prior to Pentecost, might have been mistaken as not being a Person of the Trinity. One, the New Catholic Encyclopedia states: "The O[ld] T[estament] clearly does not envisage God's spirit as a person … God's spirit is simply God's power. If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of Yahweh acts exteriorly. … The majority of N[ew] T[estament] texts reveal God's spirit as something, not someone; this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God." (New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1967, Vol. 14, pp. 574, 575).<br /><br />If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of Yahweh acts exteriorly (Isa. 48:16; 63:11; 32:15). Very rarely do the OT writers attribute to God's spirit emotions or intellectual activity (Isa. 63:10; Wisdom of Solomon 1:3-7). When such expressions are used, they are mere figures of speech that are explained by the fact that the RUAH was regarded also as the seat of intellectual acts and feeling (Gen. 41:8).<br /><br />Neither is there found in the OT or in rabbinical literature the notion that God's spirit is an intermediary being between God and the world. This activity is proper to the angels, although to them is ascribed some of the activity that elsewhere is ascribed to the spirit of God"<br /><br />This encyclopedia further states:<br /><br />"… the NT (New Testament) concepts of the Spirit of God are largely a continuation of those of the OT. … The majority of NT texts reveal God's spirit as something, not someone; this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God.<br /><br />When a quasi-personal activity is ascribed to God's spirit, e.g., speaking, hindering, desiring, dwelling (Acts 8:29; 16:7; Rom.8:9), one is not justified in concluding immediately that in these passages God's spirit is regarded as a Person; the same expressions are used in regard to rhetorically personified things or abstract ideas (see Rom.6:6; 7:17).<br /><br />Thus the context of the phrase 'blasphemy against the spirit' (Mat.12:31; cf. Mat.12:28; Luke 11:20, see also Eternal sin) shows that reference is being made to the power of God".<br /><br />Thus, it must be noted that Roman Catholic teaching has always held the Holy Spirit, however depicted, to be a distinct Person of the Trinity, not just an aspect or manifestation of some attribute of the Father or the Son.<br /><br />According to those who hold the minority (and, for Catholics, heretical) view of Binitarianism, the Holy Spirit is not a separate being, but the Father and the Son are. One such group, the Living Church of God teaches this about the Holy Spirit, "The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout the entire universe (1 Kings 8:27; Psalm 139:7; Jeremiah 23:24). It was through the Spirit that God created all things (Genesis 1:1-2; Revelation 4:11). It is the power by which Christ maintains the universe (Hebrews 1:2-3). It is given to all who repent of their sins and are baptized (Acts 2:38-39) and is the power (Acts 1:8; 2 Timothy 1:6-7) by which all believers may be "overcomers" (Romans 8:37; Revelation 2:26-27) and will be led to eternal life" (Official Statement of Fundamental Beliefs).<br /><br />The view that the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person has been considered to be heretical by mainstream Christianity, including Roman Catholicism. For example, Epiphanius of Salamis referred to some of those as Semi-Arians and Pneumatomachi ("spirit-fighters") and called them, "A sort of monstrous, half-formed people of two natures … Semi-Arians … hold the truly orthodox view of the Son, that he was forever with the Father...but has been begotten without beginning and not in time … But all of these blaspheme the Holy Spirit, and do not count him in the Godhead with the Father and the Son" (Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472)<br /><br />[edit] Non-Christian views<br /><br />[edit] Bahá'í Faith<br /><br />In the Bahá'í Faith, the Holy Spirit, also known as the Most Great Spirit, is seen as the bounty of God.[16] It is usually used to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God, which are known as Manifestations of God, and include among others Jesus, Muhammad and Bahá'u'lláh.[17] In Bahá'í belief the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with his messenger, and it has been described variously in different religions such as the burning bush to Moses, the sacred fire to Zoroaster, the dove to Jesus, the angel Gabriel to Muhammad, and the Holy Maiden to Bahá'u'lláh.[18] The Bahá'í view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead, but rather is a pure reflection of God's attributes.[19]<br /><br />[edit] Islam<br /><br /> Main article: Holy Spirit (Islam)<br /><br />Holy Spirit in Islam is an agent of divine action or communication commonly identified with the angel Gabriel (ar: Jibreel) but also alternatively with the created spirit from God by which he enlivened Adam, made Mary pregnant with Jesus, and inspired the angels and the prophets.[20][21]<br /><br />[edit] Judaism<br /><br />In Judaism, the idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical (see Deuteronomy 6:4). Nonetheless, the term Ruah Ha-qodesh (Holy Spirit) is found frequently in Talmudic and Midrashic literature. In some cases it signifies prophetic inspiration, while in others it is used as a hypostatization or a metonym for God. [22] The Rabbinic “Holy Spirit,” has a certain degree of personification, but it remains, “a quality belonging to God, one of his attributes” and not, as in Christianity, representative of “any metaphysical divisions in the Godhead.” [23]<br /><br />See also shekhinah.<br /><br />[edit] Mandaeanism<br /><br /> Main article: Ruha d-Qudsha<br /><br />[edit] Rastafarian view<br /><br />As a movement that developed out of Christianity, Rastafari has its own unique interpretation of both the Holy Trinity and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is Haile Selassie who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, "Hola") Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see 'I and I'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true church is the human body, and that it is this church (or "structure") that contains the Holy Spirit.<br /><br />[edit] Sant Mat<br /><br />(see Surat Shabd Yoga)<br /><br />[edit] See also<br /><br /> * God the Father<br /> * God the Son<br /> * God in Christianity<br /> * Christ<br /> * Jesus<br /> * Angel<br /> * Gabriel<br /> * Fleur de lys<br /> * Pneumatology<br /> * Prevenient Grace<br /> * Slain in the Spirit<br /> * Athanasian Creed<br /> * Apostles Creed<br /> * Nicene Creed<br /> * Agape<br /> * A Course in Miracles<br /> * Baptism with the Holy Spirit<br /> * The Blasphemy Challenge<br /> * Revelation<br /><br />[edit] References<br /><br /> 1. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_God_%28Anderson%29<br /> 2. ^ BibleGateway.com - Passage Lookup: John 16:7<br /> 3. ^ It's all Greek to Them, The Holy Spirit He, She or It?<br /> 4. ^ The Real Ghost Story<br /> 5. ^ She is a Tree of Life<br /> 6. ^ Shelter from the Storm<br /> 7. ^ “Martin Luther, the originator of the Protestant movement, was not ashamed to think of the Holy Spirit in feminine terms<br /> 8. ^ Church Fathers Believed the Holy Spirit was Feminine<br /> 9. ^ Norfolk schools told Holy Ghost 'too spooky' | Schools special reports | EducationGuardian.co.uk<br /> 10. ^ BibleGateway.com - Passage Lookup: John 16:8<br /> 11. ^ BibleGateway.com - Passage Lookup: Acts 1:8<br /> 12. ^ home<br /> 13. ^ a b Broughton, James H.; Peter J Southgate. The Trinity: True or False?. UK: The Dawn Book Supply. <br /> 14. ^ http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm<br /> 15. ^ Jehovah is The Almighty Creator. Jesus is the first born of all creation. Holy Spirit is Jehovah God's active force. http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/<br /> 16. ^ `Abdu'l-Bahá [1904-06] (1981). "The Holy Spirit", Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, pp. 108-109. ISBN 0877431906. <br /> 17. ^ Taherzadeh, Adib (1976). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1: Baghdad 1853-63. Oxford, UK: George Ronald, p. 10. ISBN 0853982708. <br /> 18. ^ Abdo, Lil (1994). "Female Representations of the Holy Spirit in Bahá'í and Christian writings and their implications for gender roles". Bahá'í Studies Review 4 (1). <br /> 19. ^ `Abdu'l-Bahá [1904-06] (1981). "The Trinity", Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, pp. 113-115. ISBN 0877431906. <br /> 20. ^ Griffith, Sidney H. Holy Spirit, Encyclopaedia of the Quran<br /> 21. ^ Patrick Hughes, Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, p. 605<br /> 22. ^ Alan Unterman and Rivka Horowitz,Ruah ha-Kodesh, Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition, Jerusalem: Judaica Multimedia/Keter, 1997).<br /> 23. ^ Joseph Abelson,The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature (London:Macmillan and Co., 1912)<br /><br />[edit] External links<br /><br /> * Holy Spirit: Scripture Reference Guide<br /> * a Lutheran's view of what the Holy Spirit does<br /> * Lois Roden's studies on the Feminine aspect of the Godhead<br /> * How To Live By The Power Of The Holy Spirit (Protestant Christian)<br /> * Eastons Bible Dictionary:Holy Ghost<br /> * Jewish Encyclopedia: Holy Spirit<br /> * Catholic Encyclopedia: Holy Ghost<br /> * The Holy Spirit: The Feminine Face of God<br /> * The Holy Spirit: Who is He?<br /><br /><br />[hide]<br />v • d • e<br />Christianity topics<br />Jesus Christ <br />Virgin birth • Incarnation • Ministry • Miracles • Crucifixion • Resurrection • Second Coming • Chronology<br /> <br />Foundations <br />Creeds • Christian Church • Gospel • Kingdom of God • New Covenant • Timeline • Twelve Apostles<br />Bible <br />Books • Canon • Old Testament • New Testament • Apocrypha<br />Theology <br />Trinity: (God: Father, Son, & Holy Spirit) • Atonement • History Of • Apologetics<br />History & Denominations <br />Early Christianity • Ecumenical councils • Eastern • Western • Reformation • Evangelicalism • Fundamentalism • Liberalism • Messianic • Restorationism • Nontrinitarianism<br />Miscellaneous Topics <br />Worship • Art • Criticism • Denominations <br />God the Father<br />From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />Jump to: navigation, search<br />God the Father , God the Son and Holy Spirit by Andrea Previtali.<br />God the Father , God the Son and Holy Spirit by Andrea Previtali.<br /><br /><br />In many religions, the supreme deity (God) is given the title and attributions of Father. In many forms of polytheism, the highest god has been conceived as a "father of gods and of men". In the Israelite religion and modern Judaism, God is called Father because he is the creator, law-giver, and protector. In Christianity, God is called Father for the same reasons, but especially because of the mystery of the Father-Son relationship revealed by Jesus Christ. In general, the name of Father applied to deity signifies that he is the origin of what is subject to him, a supreme and powerful authority, a patriarch, and protector.<br />Contents<br />[hide]<br /><br /> * 1 Polytheism<br /> * 2 Monotheism<br /> o 2.1 Judaism<br /> o 2.2 Gender<br /> * 3 Christianity<br /> o 3.1 Trinitarianism and other Christian conceptions<br /> * 4 Notes<br /> * 5 See also<br /> * 6 External links<br /><br />[edit] Polytheism<br /><br />In many polytheistic religions, one or more gods is thought to be a leader and a father of other lords, or of humanity. The classical example from Indo-European mythology is Dyeus, with an epithet "father" e.g. in Roman religion as Iuppiter, and in Vedic religion, as Dyaus Pita. In Egyptian religion, jt-nṯr "god father" was an epithet of Thot.<br /><br />[edit] Monotheism<br /><br />In major forms of modern monotheisms, such as Judaism, Christianity, Bahai as well as in Vaishnavism and Krishnaism God is addressed as the father in part because of his active interest in human affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children, who are depended on him.[1] Thus, many monotheists believe they can communicate with him through prayer, either to praise him or to influence his behavior. They expect that as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children, acting in their best interests, even punishing those who misbehave like a father punishes his children. "Endure hardship as discipline; God is treating you as sons. For what son is not disciplined by his father? If you are not disciplined (and everyone undergoes discipline), then you are illegitimate children and not true sons." (Hebrews 12:8)<br /><br />Islam, however, does not see Allah in a fatherhood role. For Muslims, such a relationship with him is condemned by the Qur'an. "(Both) the Jews and the Christians say, 'We are sons of Allah and His beloved'. Say: why then doth He punish you for your sins? Nay, you are but men of the men He has created". (Surah 5:18)<br /><br />[edit] Judaism<br /><br />In Judaism, God is called "Father" with a unique sense of familiarity; in addition to the sense in which God is "Father" to all men because he created the world (and in that sense "fathered" the world), the same God is also uniquely the patriarchal law-giver to the chosen people. He maintains a special, covenantal father-child relationship with the people, giving them the Shabbat, stewardship of his oracles, and a unique heritage in the things of God, calling Israel "my son" because he delivered the descendants of Jacob out of slavery in Egypt (Hosea 11:1) according to his oath to their father, Abraham. To God, according to Judaism, is attributed the fatherly role of protector: he is called the Father of the poor, of the orphan and the widow, their guarantor of justice. He is also called the Father of the king, as the teacher and helper over the judge of Israel.<br /><br />[edit] Gender<br /><br />Masculine characteristics are ascribed to God, in the scripture and traditions of the vast majority of monotheists; although, God is also usually defined as being a spirit, and thus having no biological sex. Accordingly, God is thought of as dominant, powerful, fatherly, dispassionate, whose ways are too high for his children to understand; and, in keeping with this understanding, God is conventionally referred to by the masculine pronoun he (often capitalised; He).<br /><br />[edit] Christianity<br />[show]<br /><br />Part of a series of articles on<br />Christianity<br /><br /><br /> <br />Jesus Christ<br />Virgin birth • Crucifixion • Resurrection<br />Foundations<br />Church • New Covenant<br />Apostles • Kingdom • Gospel • Timeline<br />Bible<br />Old Testament • New Testament<br />Books • Canon • Apocrypha<br />Christian theology<br />Trinity • (Father • Son • Holy Spirit)<br />History of • Theology • Apologetics<br />History and traditions<br />Early • Councils • Creeds • Missions<br />East-West Schism • Crusades • Reformation<br />Denominations<br />[show]Catholicism<br />Anglican • Eastern Catholic • Independent Catholic • Old Catholic • Roman Catholic<br />[show]Protestantism<br />Lutheran • Reformed • Anabaptist • Baptist • Methodist • Adventist • Evangelicalism • Holiness • Pentecostal<br />[show]Orthodoxy<br /><br />Eastern Orthodoxy • Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysite) • Syriac Christianity (inc. Nestorian Assyrians)<br />[show]Nontrinitarian<br /><br />Jehovah's Witnesses • Latter Day Saint movement • Unitarianism • Christadelphians • Oneness Pentecostalism<br />Topics in Christianity<br />Preaching • Prayer • Ecumenism<br />Relation to other religions • Movements<br />Music • Liturgy • Calendar<br />Symbols • Art • Criticism<br />Christianity Portal<br />This box: view • talk • edit<br /><br />In Christianity, God is called "Father" in a more literal sense, besides being the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children. The Father is said to have an eternal relation to his only son, Jesus; which implies an exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him." (Matthew 11:27). In Christian theology, this is the revelation of a sense in which fatherhood is inherent to God's nature, an eternal relationship.<br /><br />To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children. Thus, humans in general are sometimes called children of God. To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father (Ephesians 3:15), and thus God himself is the model of the family.<br /><br />However, there is a deeper sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the eternal relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ. Christians call themselves adopted children of God: But when the fullness of the time had come, God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born under the law, to redeem those who were under the law, that we might receive the adoption as sons. And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ. (Epistle to the Galatians 4:4-7)<br /><br />The expressions "God the Father" and "God our Father" appear frequently in the New Testament, as does Son of God, while God the Son and "God the Holy Spirit" are absent. Patristic and liturgical texts include the phrase "the God and Father,"[2] which is also used by Cyril of Alexandria.[3] Basil the Great in one passage speaks of "God the Father and God the Son" (ep. 52:1), but he writes elsewhere: "There is one God and Father, one only-begotten Son, and one Holy Spirit."[4] Thus, while the classic Christian teaching is that the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, this does not appear to be matched by equal usage of the phrases "God the Father", "God the Son", and "God the Holy Spirit" in early Christian writing. Likewise, the popularity of such expressions as "God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit" (which might be criticized as having a modalistic flavor) appears to be of more recent origin. While such language departs from New Testament usage, the undoubted deity of the Son and the Spirit according to classical Christianity legitimates its use. Still, it is notable that the biblical expression "God the Father" -- and absence of similar expressions relative to the Son and Spirit -- lays stress on the unique monarchy of the Father.<br /><br />[edit] Trinitarianism and other Christian conceptions<br /><br />To trinitarian Christians (which since post-apostolic times has represented the vast Christian majority), God the Father is not at all a separate god from the Son (of whom Jesus is the incarnation) and the Holy Spirit, the other members of the Christian Godhead. Trinitarian Christians describe these three persons as a Trinity. This means that they always exist as three distinct "persons" (Greek hypostases), but they are one god, each having full identity as God himself (a single "substance"), a single "divine nature" and power, and a single "divine will".<br /><br />Other Christians held alternative ideas about the Trinity. A handful have described the Father, Son and Spirit as each a distinct, eternally existent being (tritheism), or as a different "manifestation" of a single being (modalism). Some have theorized that the relationship of Father and Son began at some point probably outside of normal "history" (Arianism); and others have believed that God became a Father when he uttered his creating Λογος ("logos" or "word"), who is both a principle of order and a living being to whom God bears the relationship as Father (some gnostics). Others found strong affinity with traditional pagan ideas of a savior or hero who is begotten by deity, an idea of the Father similar to Mithraism or the cult of the Roman emperor.<br /><br />For many Christians, the person of God the Father is the ultimate, and on occasion the exclusive addressee of prayer, often in the name of Jesus Christ. The Lord's Prayer, for example, begins, "Our Father who art in Heaven…"<br /><br />In the New Testament, God the Father has a special role in his relationship with the person of the Son, where Jesus is his Son and his heir (Epistle to the Hebrews 1:2-5). According to the Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. See Christology.<br /><br />In Eastern Orthodox theology, God the Father is the "arche" or "principium" (beginning), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit (which gives intuitive emphasis to the threeness of persons); by comparison, Western theology explains the "origin" of all three hypostases or persons as being in the divine nature (which gives intuitive emphasis to the oneness of God's being). The Cappadocian Fathers used this Eastern Orthodox monarchian understanding to explain why trinitarianism is not tritheism: "God is one because the Father is one," said Basil the Great in the fourth century. In the eighth century, John of Damascus wrote at greater length about the Father's monarchial relation:<br /><br /> Whatsoever the Son has from the Father, the Spirit also has, including His very being. And if the Father does not exist, then neither does the Son and the Spirit; and if the Father does not have something, then neither has the Son or the Spirit. Furthermore, because of the Father, that is, because the Father is, the Son and the Spirit are; and because of the Father, the Son and the Spirit have everything that they have.<br /><br />[edit] Notes<br /><br /> 1. ^ Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. p. 98<br /> 2. ^ E.g. the dismissal used at the feast of Christ's Ascension in the Orthodox tradition: "May He who ascended ... and sat at the right hand of the God and Father, Christ our true God..."<br /> 3. ^ E.g. in his Commentary on the Gospel of John. Pusey's translation of this work, however, consistently but imprecisely renders the phrase as "God the Father", perhaps influenced by the biblical and common English phrasing "God the Father."<br /> 4. ^ On the Holy Spirit, 44<br /><br /><br />Revision history of God the Father<br />From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br />View logs for this page<br />Jump to: navigation, search<br />Search in history<br />From year (and earlier): From month (and earlier): <br />(Latest | Earliest) View (newer 50) (older 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500)<br />For any version listed below, click on its date to view it. 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(TW)) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 14:08, 25 June 2008 Zarapoza (Talk | contribs) (12,247 bytes) (→External links) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 06:57, 21 June 2008 Joseph Solis in Australia (Talk | contribs) m (12,160 bytes) (→See also: Change wikilink) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 06:39, 21 June 2008 Joseph Solis in Australia (Talk | contribs) m (12,161 bytes) (→Notes: Change the font size) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 02:57, 18 June 2008 Carl.bunderson (Talk | contribs) (12,164 bytes) (rv undue) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 06:29, 15 June 2008 60.241.237.7 (Talk) (12,539 bytes) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 05:42, 14 June 2008 Jurj (Talk | contribs) (12,164 bytes) (→Polytheism) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 04:09, 14 June 2008 Andycjp (Talk | contribs) (12,160 bytes) (→Trinitarianism and other Christian conceptions: link) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 17:45, 11 June 2008 Carlaude (Talk | contribs) m (12,156 bytes) (Quick-adding category "God in Christianity" (using HotCat)) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 15:28, 11 June 2008 Pastordavid (Talk | contribs) m (12,123 bytes) (→External links: more specific cat) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 16:24, 1 June 2008 Ghirlandajo (Talk | contribs) (12,161 bytes) (restored humorous picture) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 16:24, 1 June 2008 Ghirlandajo (Talk | contribs) (12,061 bytes) (sorry, this subject is called Trinity) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 15:53, 20 May 2008 Dj manton (Talk | contribs) (12,145 bytes) (Added link to He (with a capital aich)) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 15:50, 20 May 2008 Dj manton (Talk | contribs) (12,108 bytes) (Added links to 'Jesus Christ' and 'patriarch') (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 10:11, 17 May 2008 Alastair Haines (Talk | contribs) (12,100 bytes) (→Gender: spirits have social roles hence theoretically *can* have gender -- most theologians are cautious about attributing biological sex to spirits, though angels may possibly be masculine) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 12:18, 7 May 2008 JAnDbot (Talk | contribs) m (12,092 bytes) (robot Removing: tr:Teslis Modifying: uk:Бог-Отець) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 16:52, 4 May 2008 SkyWalker (Talk | contribs) (12,105 bytes) (→Christianity) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 10:33, 1 May 2008 Hanhil (Talk | contribs) m (12,089 bytes) (+interwiki nl) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 22:46, 30 April 2008 75.129.168.159 (Talk) (12,069 bytes) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 22:46, 30 April 2008 75.129.168.159 (Talk) (12,085 bytes) (undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 05:57, 22 April 2008 Ilkali (Talk | contribs) (12,069 bytes) (Undid revision 207288503 by 76.102.98.39 (talk) It's linked. 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(undo)<br /> * (cur) (last) 03:10, 22 January 2008 207.96.151.243 (Talk) (12,047 bytes) (Added another category.) (undo)<br /><br />(Latest | Earliest) View (newer 50) (older 50) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500)<br /><br />"Faith can no longer mean sitting still and waiting -- they must rise and follow him. The call frees them from all earthly ties, and binds them to Jesus Christ alone. They must burn their boats and plunge into absolute insecurity in order to learn the demand and the gift of Christ.""<br /><br />- Dietrich Bonhoeffer<br />Tuesday, April 5, 2005<br />Sabellius vs. Athanasius: Let's Get Ready to Rumble!<br />Posted by Bird @ 2:34 pm CDT<br />Filed under: Theology<br /><br />Phil's recent post on different views about God got me thinking about Yahweh and our varying ideas of who He is, particularly as it relates to the Trinity.<br /><br />Let me first say that I tread lightly, very lightly, on this hallowed ground for two reasons: First off, we're dealing with the very nature of who God is, and how He chooses to reveal Himself to humanity. Secondly, although it's not my intention to be a heretic, I'm sure that some within the Body would label me such, simply because I'm entertaining questions that Christian theologians apparently settled years ago.<br /><br />To me, the doctrine of the Trinity is confusing. But, perhaps that confusion presents itself simply because I can never understand God's infinite knowledge and wisdom (Isaiah 55:9). On the other hand, I think God reveals Himself to us, and much of that revelation is there for the taking, we just have to look and ask.<br /><br />My employer, and many of my fellow employees, are members of a Christian community; they call themselves Homestead Heritage. They live simple, agrarian lives in the outskirts of my hometown, Waco, Texas. The group comes from a United Pentecostal Church (UPC) background, but they now identify themselves as non-denominational. However, one of the views espoused by the UPC, the "oneness" view of God, is still part of their core belief. Some would say the idea, which sees the Father, Son and Holy Spirit as three expressions of God, rather than three distinct persons, is classic Sabellianism, or modalism as it is now called. With that said, many would consider a true modalist to be a heretic, and, therefore, not within the realm of orthodox Christianity.<br /><br />One theologian, Dr. Roger E. Olson of Truett Theological Seminary, developed a strong rapport with certain Homestead Heritage leaders, and he recently wrote a piece in Christianity Today, giving a general overview of their community and their beliefs. (This article can probably still be found by performing a search on Yahoo or Google.) In his article, Dr. Olson contends that Homestead Heritage holds no "aberrant" doctrine, as far as he could tell.<br /><br />Since I have been scratching my theological head for a few months now in regard to the Trinity, I thought I'd give Dr. Olson a call. You see, Olson is a Trinitarian, so I was naturally curious to get his firsthand input on Homestead Heritage and the doctrine of the Trinity in general. Thankfully, Dr. Olson was gracious enough to chat with me for 15 minutes or so; I found the conversation quite encouraging.<br /><br />I'd be remiss to try and quote Olson directly, since I didn't write down what he said (except for one short blurb on modalism), but I'd like to communicate the gist of our conversation. In short, he seems to give a lot of grace to believers who accept Christ as God and Lord, yet are not quite there in their understanding of the Trinity. He's obviously quite fond of Homestead Heritage's community, and their "bold experiment" in radical, Christian, communal living. Also, he seemed to allude to the idea that apparent differences in theology might be more of a semantical issue since the Homestead Heritage folks tend to emphasize biblical language over church-created terminology.<br /><br />Overall, Olson was very complimentary of Homestead Heritage and the Homestead leadership he's developed friendships with. One interesting thing he said about modalism is that a true modalist would have to say that the entire Godhead was on the cross; he doesn't believe the Homesteaders actually follow modalism to its logical conclusion.<br /><br />I was struck by Olson's humility, as he explained that we, as believers, are all on a theological journey, and certainly not one person has all the answers. After talking to a great theologian like Dr. Olson, I found it fitting to talk to another great theologian, the Thinklings' own Jared C. Wilson. Jared said something I wholeheartedly agree with, "I don't think your theology saves you." Amen.<br /><br />So, what's your opinion on the Trinity?<br />16 comments<br /><br />Trackbacks:<br /><br />Trackback URL: http://thinklings.org/bloo.trackback.php/1986.504b<br />Comments on "Sabellius vs. Athanasius: Let's Get Ready to Rumble!":<br />1. Jared - 04/05/2005 2:39 pm CDT<br /><br />Well, even though I believe it is Jesus who saves, and not theology, I do believe -- as I know you do -- that theology is important, critically so. My "opinion" is that the classical, traditional view of the Trinity is a valid test for Christian orthodoxy. In other words, I do believe a denial of the orthodox position on the Trinity is heresy.<br />But I would go out on a limb and say that personal salvation is not contingent on an entirely proper or full comprehension of the Trinity. I hope not, because even I don't really understand it.<br /><br />I would grant more leeway if, as you mentioned, the person holding a deficient or slightly confused view of the Trinity nevertheless expressly confessed the deity of Jesus.<br /><br />But I don't think that, say, "accidental" modalism is a damnable sin.<br />2. Kevin - 04/05/2005 4:46 pm CDT<br /><br />I am a pretty vanilla trinitarian, but I wonder whether the church loses something when it doesn't occasionally refer to God with feminine pronouns when appropriate. God is an interesting kind of "male" with breasts, a womb, and chicks gathered under [His/Her] wings. I would agree that God is not female, but would suggest that God is not male either.<br /><br />I have always known (and am now learning by experience) that a father alone is not a sufficient parent. There are needs that children have that a father, even a perfect one, cannot meet. There is a comfort in praying to God as One Who reacts from the Womb, and not just from the Right Arm of His Strength.<br />3. Bob - 04/06/2005 5:04 am CDT<br /><br />To me, the doctrine of the Trinity is confusing.<br />If it's not, then you're not a Trinitarian. I like C.S. Lewis's idea -- and I'm not going to be able to recapture his eloquence here -- of God being "more personal" than we mere persons in the same way that a sphere is "more round" than a circle. It is possible that our failure to understand the Trinity is loosely like the failure of a two-dimensional being to understand a sphere. I really get annoyed when someone like Hannegraff (whom I usually like) blithely says, "Well, the Trinity is one God in three persons. Thanks for the call," as if that settles the whole thing. (I'm exaggerating of course, but not by much IMHO.)<br /><br />Dr. Olson seems to give a lot of grace to believers who ... are not quite there in their understanding of the Trinity. ... Also, he seemed to allude to the idea that apparent differences in theology might be more of a semantical issue ...<br />Yep. Happens all the time. Olson sounds like a good guy. Of course, we should always be trying to make our own language about the Trinity as complete and accurate as possible, and we don't want to stand for heresy entering our churches. But we do have to show lots of grace in this area of deep waters. If anyone knows where to draw the line, please let me know. Sigh.<br />4. Bill - 04/06/2005 6:14 am CDT<br /><br />Bob<br /><br />Well said - you have stated very well the way I feel about trying to understand the doctrine of the Trinity<br />5. Alan - 04/06/2005 6:38 am CDT<br /><br />Theology doesn't save, of course, Jesus does. But Jesus doesn't save if you think he's a chihuahua that hangs out in Taco Bell commercials. You do have to identify Jesus correctly in order to place a saving faith in him.<br /><br />I like Jared's comment about "accidental modalism." If I conducted a poll on the nature of the trinity at a typical evangelical church, I would get more than a few heretical answers. But there's a difference between ignorance or accidental error and willful error.<br /><br />For example, while many might give initially heretical answers on the trinity, in follow up questions, such as to the modalist, does that mean that the Godhead died on the cross, almost all would probably deny it.<br /><br />So in examining heresy, we have to use precise language, but then we also have to inquire further-- what does that imply? If a person denies the implications of an extrabiblical formulation that the church has considered heretical, then I'd say the person's probably not a heretic, just confused or hung up on a terminological point.<br /><br />Although I'd say that denying one particular implication of a position that is, taking terms at face value, heretical, does not mean that a person is orthodox.<br /><br />Reading through that article by Olson, I was at once somewhat comforted, but also alarmed, at the position they took on the trinity. Of course, his article only mentions it in passing. But basically, they want to stick to biblical language regarding God, and not develop extrabiblical ways of describing God.<br /><br />I think that's comforting because (a) I would consider the case for heresy very strong if they were actually employing extrabiblical formulations about God that are heretical, and (b) scripture is our only infallible rule of faith and practice. We ought to have it as a priority to be comfortable with scripture, and not just with theologically precise formulas.<br /><br />At the same time, there are significant problems here. (1) You can't not use extrabiblical formulations about God. That is, unless you never talk or think about God except in verbatim chunks of the Bible. If you write books, give sermons, etc., then you are using extrabiblical formulations. (2) If you refuse to use extrabiblical formulations, then it becomes that much harder to pin down heresies that have their roots in a selective reading of the Bible. This would concern the he